Absolutism challenged: Britain, 1603–1649

The Political Nation was the small elite of landowners and wealthy men who held real power in early Stuart England. They

Stuart Britain and the Crisis of Monarchy, 1603–1702

Absolutism challenged: Britain, 1603–1649

Both James I and Charles I believed a king ruled by God's authority alone and owed Parliament no explanation. Their pers

Stuart Britain and the Crisis of Monarchy, 1603–1702

Absolutism challenged: Britain, 1603–1649

Both James I and Charles I were chronically short of money. They tried various schemes to raise funds without asking Par

Stuart Britain and the Crisis of Monarchy, 1603–1702

Absolutism challenged: Britain, 1603–1649

Three religious groups — Catholics, Puritans, and Arminians — each made different demands on the Stuart kings. Their com

Stuart Britain and the Crisis of Monarchy, 1603–1702

Absolutism challenged: Britain, 1603–1649

James I and Charles I repeatedly clashed with Parliament across four main areas. Those areas were parliamentary privileg

Stuart Britain and the Crisis of Monarchy, 1603–1702

Absolutism challenged: Britain, 1603–1649

By 1629, Charles I and Parliament had reached a complete breakdown in trust. Charles dissolved Parliament and chose to r

Stuart Britain and the Crisis of Monarchy, 1603–1702

Absolutism challenged: Britain, 1603–1649

In early Stuart England, Protestants bitterly disagreed about how the Church should look and behave. These religious div

Stuart Britain and the Crisis of Monarchy, 1603–1702

Absolutism challenged: Britain, 1603–1649

Charles I ruled without Parliament from 1629 to 1640. When he finally recalled Parliament, deep political divisions quic

Stuart Britain and the Crisis of Monarchy, 1603–1702

Absolutism challenged: Britain, 1603–1649

Between 1642 and 1651, Charles I fought two civil wars against Parliament. Scotland and Ireland shaped both conflicts. C

Stuart Britain and the Crisis of Monarchy, 1603–1702

Absolutism challenged: Britain, 1603–1649

The Civil War unleashed radical groups who demanded far more than Parliament had ever wanted. The Levellers pushed for p

Stuart Britain and the Crisis of Monarchy, 1603–1702

Absolutism challenged: Britain, 1603–1649

After the Civil War ended in 1646, the victorious Parliament and its own Army fell into bitter dispute. They could not a

Stuart Britain and the Crisis of Monarchy, 1603–1702

Absolutism challenged: Britain, 1603–1649

In January 1649, Parliament put King Charles I on trial and executed him. The people who organised this argued that a ki

Stuart Britain and the Crisis of Monarchy, 1603–1702

Absolutism challenged: Britain, 1603–1649

When James I took the throne in 1603, he and his son Charles I both believed in royal absolutism — the idea that a king'

Stuart Britain and the Crisis of Monarchy, 1603–1702

Autocracy, Reform and Revolution: Russia, 1855–1917

In 1855, the Tsar ruled Russia alone with total power and no parliament. A disastrous war with Britain and France had ju

Tsarist and Communist Russia, 1855–1964

Autocracy, Reform and Revolution: Russia, 1855–1917

Alexander II responded to Russia's backwardness by freeing the serfs in 1861 and modernising the army, courts, and local

Tsarist and Communist Russia, 1855–1964

Autocracy, Reform and Revolution: Russia, 1855–1917

Alexander II and Alexander III both ruled Russia as autocrats, meaning they held total personal power. They differed sha

Tsarist and Communist Russia, 1855–1964

Autocracy, Reform and Revolution: Russia, 1855–1917

Russification was the Tsarist policy of forcing non-Russian peoples to adopt Russian language, culture, and religion. Th

Tsarist and Communist Russia, 1855–1964

Autocracy, Reform and Revolution: Russia, 1855–1917

From the 1860s onwards, organised groups challenged Tsarist rule with competing political ideas. Liberals wanted gradual

Tsarist and Communist Russia, 1855–1964

Autocracy, Reform and Revolution: Russia, 1855–1917

Russia's economy and society changed significantly between 1855 and 1894. Industry grew slowly, land ownership caused de

Tsarist and Communist Russia, 1855–1964

Autocracy, Reform and Revolution: Russia, 1855–1917

Nicholas II ruled Russia as an autocrat but faced a revolution in 1905. He survived by making limited concessions, inclu

Tsarist and Communist Russia, 1855–1964

Autocracy, Reform and Revolution: Russia, 1855–1917

Between 1855 and 1914, Russia built factories, railways, and cities at speed. But farming remained backward, and most pe

Tsarist and Communist Russia, 1855–1964

Autocracy, Reform and Revolution: Russia, 1855–1917

Between 1855 and 1914, rapid industrialisation transformed how Russians lived and worked. Cities grew fast, peasants flo

Tsarist and Communist Russia, 1855–1964

Autocracy, Reform and Revolution: Russia, 1855–1917

By the early twentieth century, organised groups of Russians actively challenged Tsarist rule using competing political

Tsarist and Communist Russia, 1855–1964

Autocracy, Reform and Revolution: Russia, 1855–1917

The First World War pushed Russia's already fragile government to breaking point. By 1917, military disaster, food short

Tsarist and Communist Russia, 1855–1964

Autocracy, Reform and Revolution: Russia, 1855–1917

In October 1917, the Bolsheviks seized power from Russia's Provisional Government. They then built a new revolutionary g

Tsarist and Communist Russia, 1855–1964

Autocracy, Reform and Revolution: Russia, 1855–1917

Russia in 1855 was ruled as an autocracy — a system in which the Tsar held absolute political power with no obligation t

Tsarist and Communist Russia, 1855–1964

Building a new Britain, 1951–1979

The Conservatives won three elections in a row between 1951 and 1959. Four different leaders held power, and Labour's in

The Making of Modern Britain, 1951–2007

Building a new Britain, 1951–1979

Britain enjoyed strong economic growth in the 1950s, but recurring money problems forced governments to repeatedly switc

The Making of Modern Britain, 1951–2007

Building a new Britain, 1951–1979

Between 1951 and 1979, British society changed dramatically. More money, new consumer goods, mass immigration, and a reb

The Making of Modern Britain, 1951–2007

Building a new Britain, 1951–1979

Between 1951 and 1964, Britain struggled to define its place in the world. It fought in Korea, humiliated itself at Suez

The Making of Modern Britain, 1951–2007

Building a new Britain, 1951–1979

Harold Wilson led Labour governments from 1964 to 1970. He promised modernisation but faced economic crises, trade union

The Making of Modern Britain, 1951–2007

Building a new Britain, 1951–1979

During the 1960s, Parliament passed a series of laws that transformed personal freedom in Britain. These reforms ended t

The Making of Modern Britain, 1951–2007

Building a new Britain, 1951–1979

From the 1960s onwards, British society changed rapidly. Television, new freedoms, youth culture, and fierce debates abo

The Making of Modern Britain, 1951–2007

Building a new Britain, 1951–1979

During the 1960s, Britain had to manage a shrinking empire, a demanding American ally, and a Europe it was not yet part

The Making of Modern Britain, 1951–2007

Building a new Britain, 1951–1979

Edward Heath led a Conservative government from 1970 to 1974. He faced crippling strikes, a collapsing economy, and viol

The Making of Modern Britain, 1951–2007

Building a new Britain, 1951–1979

Harold Wilson and James Callaghan led Labour governments between 1974 and 1979. Both faced severe economic crises, damag

The Making of Modern Britain, 1951–2007

Building a new Britain, 1951–1979

The 1970s saw major social movements reshape British life. Feminists, ethnic minority communities, young people, and env

The Making of Modern Britain, 1951–2007

Building a new Britain, 1951–1979

Between 1951 and 1979, Britain struggled to define its place in the world. It eventually joined the European Economic Co

The Making of Modern Britain, 1951–2007

Building a new Britain, 1951–1979

Between 1951 and 1979, Britain was reshaped by competing political visions, economic pressures, and profound social chan

The Making of Modern Britain, 1951–2007

challenges to the American Dream, 1963–1980

Lyndon Johnson became president in 1963 and launched a huge programme of reforms called the Great Society. He aimed to r

The American Dream: reality and illusion, 1945–1980

challenges to the American Dream, 1963–1980

The USA deepened its military involvement in Vietnam to prove it could stop communism spreading. This damaged trust betw

The American Dream: reality and illusion, 1945–1980

challenges to the American Dream, 1963–1980

The Civil Rights Movement won landmark laws under President Johnson. But legal change did not end racism, and frustratio

The American Dream: reality and illusion, 1945–1980

challenges to the American Dream, 1963–1980

From the mid-1960s, millions of Americans challenged the idea that their society was fair. Students, women, Black activi

The American Dream: reality and illusion, 1945–1980

challenges to the American Dream, 1963–1980

From 1963, the United States faced mounting pressure from within and without, as deep social divisions and an increasing

The American Dream: reality and illusion, 1945–1980

Civil War and Reconstruction, 1861–1877

When the Southern states broke away to form the Confederacy in 1861, they had real advantages — but also serious weaknes

America: A Nation Divided, c1845–1877

Civil War and Reconstruction, 1861–1877

The Union — the Northern states fighting to preserve the United States — entered the Civil War with major advantages. Bu

America: A Nation Divided, c1845–1877

Civil War and Reconstruction, 1861–1877

The Civil War moved through several decisive military campaigns between 1861 and 1865. A combination of Union military p

America: A Nation Divided, c1845–1877

Civil War and Reconstruction, 1861–1877

The Civil War left both sides damaged, but the South suffered far greater destruction. Putting the country back together

America: A Nation Divided, c1845–1877

Civil War and Reconstruction, 1861–1877

From 1861, the Union and the Confederacy — the breakaway Southern states — fought a devastating conflict shaped by contr

America: A Nation Divided, c1845–1877

Consolidation of the Tudor Dynasty: England, 1485–1547

After winning the crown at the Battle of Bosworth in 1485, Henry VII worked to make his rule secure and permanent. He us

The Tudors: England, 1485–1603

Consolidation of the Tudor Dynasty: England, 1485–1547

Henry VII rebuilt royal government by tightening control over his councils, law courts, and finances. These reforms made

The Tudors: England, 1485–1603

Consolidation of the Tudor Dynasty: England, 1485–1547

Henry VII used diplomacy and strategic marriages to protect England from invasion and secure his dynasty's future. Allia

The Tudors: England, 1485–1603

Consolidation of the Tudor Dynasty: England, 1485–1547

Tudor England was divided into strict social layers — clergy, nobles, and ordinary people. Tensions between these groups

The Tudors: England, 1485–1603

Consolidation of the Tudor Dynasty: England, 1485–1547

Between 1485 and 1547, England's economy shifted dramatically. The crown actively shaped trade, funded exploration, and

The Tudors: England, 1485–1603

Consolidation of the Tudor Dynasty: England, 1485–1547

Under Henry VII and Henry VIII, new ideas from Renaissance Europe reshaped English religion, scholarship, and culture. T

The Tudors: England, 1485–1603

Consolidation of the Tudor Dynasty: England, 1485–1547

Henry VIII came to the throne in 1509 with a very different personality from his cautious father. He wanted glory, popul

The Tudors: England, 1485–1603

Consolidation of the Tudor Dynasty: England, 1485–1547

Henry VIII governed through Parliament and powerful ministers like Thomas Cromwell. His most dramatic domestic policy wa

The Tudors: England, 1485–1603

Consolidation of the Tudor Dynasty: England, 1485–1547

Henry VIII managed England's relationships with Scotland, France, and the Holy Roman Empire to protect his throne. He al

The Tudors: England, 1485–1603

Consolidation of the Tudor Dynasty: England, 1485–1547

Under Henry VIII, religious change disrupted everyday life for ordinary people and powerful nobles alike. Regional tensi

The Tudors: England, 1485–1603

Consolidation of the Tudor Dynasty: England, 1485–1547

Between 1485 and 1547, England's economy shifted dramatically — trade boomed, explorers pushed into new territories, and

The Tudors: England, 1485–1603

Consolidation of the Tudor Dynasty: England, 1485–1547

Renaissance thinkers criticised the Catholic Church from within. Henry VIII then broke from Rome entirely. By 1547, Engl

The Tudors: England, 1485–1603

Consolidation of the Tudor Dynasty: England, 1485–1547

When Henry Tudor seized the throne at Bosworth in 1485, ending decades of civil war, he inherited a kingdom with fragile

The Tudors: England, 1485–1603

Crises and the rise to World Power, 1920–1975

Three Republican presidents dominated American politics in the 1920s. They believed government should stay out of busine

The making of a Superpower: USA, 1865–1975

Crises and the rise to World Power, 1920–1975

Roosevelt's New Deal programmes massively expanded what the national government did and spent. Many Americans fiercely d

The making of a Superpower: USA, 1865–1975

Crises and the rise to World Power, 1920–1975

The US economy soared in the 1920s, then collapsed in the Great Depression. Government programmes called the New Deals,

The making of a Superpower: USA, 1865–1975

Crises and the rise to World Power, 1920–1975

American society changed dramatically between the 1920s and 1940s. New music, changing gender roles, a failed alcohol ba

The making of a Superpower: USA, 1865–1975

Crises and the rise to World Power, 1920–1975

In the 1920s, deep fault lines split American society. Rural and urban Americans clashed over values, regions competed f

The making of a Superpower: USA, 1865–1975

Crises and the rise to World Power, 1920–1975

After the First World War, the USA deliberately stayed out of world affairs. President Franklin D. Roosevelt gradually r

The making of a Superpower: USA, 1865–1975

Crises and the rise to World Power, 1920–1975

After World War Two, presidents Truman and Eisenhower shaped how America rebuilt itself at home. They made big decisions

The making of a Superpower: USA, 1865–1975

Crises and the rise to World Power, 1920–1975

Three presidents — Kennedy, Johnson, and Nixon — each tried to reshape America between 1961 and 1974. Kennedy and Johnso

The making of a Superpower: USA, 1865–1975

Crises and the rise to World Power, 1920–1975

After the Second World War, millions of Americans earned more money and spent it on new goods like cars and televisions.

The making of a Superpower: USA, 1865–1975

Crises and the rise to World Power, 1920–1975

Between 1945 and 1975, deep divisions tore through American society. Fear of communism, racial inequality, generational

The making of a Superpower: USA, 1865–1975

Crises and the rise to World Power, 1920–1975

After 1945, the USA competed globally with the Soviet Union in a tense standoff called the Cold War. This rivalry shaped

The making of a Superpower: USA, 1865–1975

Crises and the rise to World Power, 1920–1975

By 1975, the USA dominated the world as a superpower. Yet deep divisions over race, gender, and culture revealed serious

The making of a Superpower: USA, 1865–1975

Crises and the rise to World Power, 1920–1975

Between 1920 and 1975, the USA lurched from the prosperity of the Jazz Age through the catastrophe of the Great Depressi

The making of a Superpower: USA, 1865–1975

Crisis in the Soviet Empire, 1953–2000

After World War Two, the USSR controlled several neighbouring countries called satellite states. Each state had its own

The Crisis of Communism: The USSR and the Soviet Empire, 1953–2000

Crisis in the Soviet Empire, 1953–2000

The USSR forced countries it controlled to copy Soviet-style politics, culture, and daily life. Ordinary people experien

The Crisis of Communism: The USSR and the Soviet Empire, 1953–2000

Crisis in the Soviet Empire, 1953–2000

Communist governments in Soviet-controlled states used secret police, censorship and tight border controls to silence op

The Crisis of Communism: The USSR and the Soviet Empire, 1953–2000

Crisis in the Soviet Empire, 1953–2000

Between 1953 and 1968, workers and reformers in several Soviet-controlled countries rose up against communist rule. The

The Crisis of Communism: The USSR and the Soviet Empire, 1953–2000

Crisis in the Soviet Empire, 1953–2000

After 1968, four Soviet satellite states each took a different approach to communist rule. Their leaders — Gierek, Husak

The Crisis of Communism: The USSR and the Soviet Empire, 1953–2000

Crisis in the Soviet Empire, 1953–2000

After 1968, the satellite states tried to fix failing communist economies through reforms. Western goods, culture, and i

The Crisis of Communism: The USSR and the Soviet Empire, 1953–2000

Crisis in the Soviet Empire, 1953–2000

People across Soviet-controlled Eastern Europe used Western radio, legal agreements, protest groups, churches, and elect

The Crisis of Communism: The USSR and the Soviet Empire, 1953–2000

Crisis in the Soviet Empire, 1953–2000

Polish workers launched mass strikes in 1980 and formed Solidarity — the first independent trade union in the Soviet blo

The Crisis of Communism: The USSR and the Soviet Empire, 1953–2000

Crisis in the Soviet Empire, 1953–2000

Before communism collapsed in 1989, people across Eastern Europe found different ways to resist their governments. In Po

The Crisis of Communism: The USSR and the Soviet Empire, 1953–2000

Crisis in the Soviet Empire, 1953–2000

By 1989, Romania and Bulgaria were communist states in deep trouble. Their long-serving leaders, Ceaușescu and Zhivkov,

The Crisis of Communism: The USSR and the Soviet Empire, 1953–2000

Crisis in the Soviet Empire, 1953–2000

In 1989, communist governments across Eastern Europe fell from power. Most collapsed through mass protests and negotiate

The Crisis of Communism: The USSR and the Soviet Empire, 1953–2000

Crisis in the Soviet Empire, 1953–2000

After communism collapsed in 1989, Eastern European countries had to build new democratic governments and free-market ec

The Crisis of Communism: The USSR and the Soviet Empire, 1953–2000

Crisis in the Soviet Empire, 1953–2000

Beyond the USSR's own borders, the Soviet satellite states — countries in central and eastern Europe that were political

The Crisis of Communism: The USSR and the Soviet Empire, 1953–2000

Crisis in the Soviet Union, 1953–2000

When Stalin died in 1953, he left behind a state built on fear and rigid central control. Four men competed to replace h

The Crisis of Communism: The USSR and the Soviet Empire, 1953–2000

Crisis in the Soviet Union, 1953–2000

Khrushchev led the USSR from 1953 and broke sharply with Stalin's brutal methods. He attacked Stalin's legacy publicly,

The Crisis of Communism: The USSR and the Soviet Empire, 1953–2000

Crisis in the Soviet Union, 1953–2000

Khrushchev tried to fix the Soviet economy and loosen cultural controls after Stalin. His reforms changed how factories

The Crisis of Communism: The USSR and the Soviet Empire, 1953–2000

Crisis in the Soviet Union, 1953–2000

Under Khrushchev, the USSR pursued a contradictory foreign policy. It sought to reduce tension with the West while simul

The Crisis of Communism: The USSR and the Soviet Empire, 1953–2000

Crisis in the Soviet Union, 1953–2000

In 1964, Communist Party insiders ousted Khrushchev and replaced him with Leonid Brezhnev. Brezhnev built his power on r

The Crisis of Communism: The USSR and the Soviet Empire, 1953–2000

Crisis in the Soviet Union, 1953–2000

Under Brezhnev, the Soviet economy slowly stopped working. Reforms failed, military spending soared, and ordinary worker

The Crisis of Communism: The USSR and the Soviet Empire, 1953–2000

Crisis in the Soviet Union, 1953–2000

Under Brezhnev, the USSR first eased tensions with the West through a policy called détente. Then the 1979 invasion of A

The Crisis of Communism: The USSR and the Soviet Empire, 1953–2000

Crisis in the Soviet Union, 1953–2000

During the late Brezhnev era, brave individuals and whole nationalities pushed back against Soviet rule. A series of sho

The Crisis of Communism: The USSR and the Soviet Empire, 1953–2000

Crisis in the Soviet Union, 1953–2000

Mikhail Gorbachev became Soviet leader in 1985 and launched three radical reform programmes to save communism from colla

The Crisis of Communism: The USSR and the Soviet Empire, 1953–2000

Crisis in the Soviet Union, 1953–2000

Gorbachev tried to save the Soviet Union by reforming its broken economy and opening up its political system. His reform

The Crisis of Communism: The USSR and the Soviet Empire, 1953–2000

Crisis in the Soviet Union, 1953–2000

Gorbachev's reforms unleashed forces he could not control. By December 1991, a failed coup, rising nationalism, and econ

The Crisis of Communism: The USSR and the Soviet Empire, 1953–2000

Crisis in the Soviet Union, 1953–2000

Boris Yeltsin led post-Soviet Russia through a chaotic decade of economic collapse and political crisis. He resigned on

The Crisis of Communism: The USSR and the Soviet Empire, 1953–2000

Crisis in the Soviet Union, 1953–2000

From Stalin's death in 1953 to the collapse of the USSR in 1991 and its turbulent aftermath, the Soviet Union lurched th

The Crisis of Communism: The USSR and the Soviet Empire, 1953–2000

Empire to democracy, 1871–1929

In 1871, Germany became a unified empire for the first time. A written constitution set out who held power — and real au

The quest for political stability: Germany, 1871–1991

Empire to democracy, 1871–1929

Under Kaiser Wilhelm I, Chancellor Bismarck ran Germany with enormous personal power. An elected parliament called the R

The quest for political stability: Germany, 1871–1991

Empire to democracy, 1871–1929

Kaiser Wilhelm II ruled Germany as an autocrat — meaning he held personal power over government. He clashed repeatedly w

The quest for political stability: Germany, 1871–1991

Empire to democracy, 1871–1929

After unification in 1871, Germany built one of the world's most powerful industrial economies. It rapidly expanded coal

The quest for political stability: Germany, 1871–1991

Empire to democracy, 1871–1929

Kaiserreich Germany had a rigid social pecking order. A military-obsessed elite sat at the top, while millions of indust

The quest for political stability: Germany, 1871–1991

Empire to democracy, 1871–1929

By 1914, Germany was a powerful but deeply unstable country. Rapid industrial growth and a rigid class system sat alongs

The quest for political stability: Germany, 1871–1991

Empire to democracy, 1871–1929

The First World War destroyed Germany's imperial government. Military defeat in 1918 triggered a revolution that swept a

The quest for political stability: Germany, 1871–1991

Empire to democracy, 1871–1929

Between 1919 and 1924, the new Weimar Republic faced violent attempts to overthrow it from both the left and the right.

The quest for political stability: Germany, 1871–1991

Empire to democracy, 1871–1929

After years of crisis, Germany entered a period of relative stability from 1924. Politician Gustav Stresemann played a c

The quest for political stability: Germany, 1871–1991

Empire to democracy, 1871–1929

Germany's economy collapsed after the First World War, hit by war debts, reparations, and hyperinflation. Foreign loans

The quest for political stability: Germany, 1871–1991

Empire to democracy, 1871–1929

The First World War tore apart German society, leaving poverty, grief, and resentment behind. The Weimar Republic then b

The quest for political stability: Germany, 1871–1991

Empire to democracy, 1871–1929

By 1929, Germany had survived revolution, hyperinflation and political violence. The Weimar Republic looked more stable,

The quest for political stability: Germany, 1871–1991

Empire to democracy, 1871–1929

Between 1871 and 1929, Germany underwent a dramatic transformation from an autocratic empire — where power rested with t

The quest for political stability: Germany, 1871–1991

England under Henry II's Successors, 1189–1216

Richard I saw crusading as his defining royal duty. He spent most of his reign fighting in the Holy Land rather than gov

Royal Authority and the Angevin Kings, 1154–1216

England under Henry II's Successors, 1189–1216

While Richard I spent most of his reign abroad on crusade, a series of officials and rivals competed to govern England i

Royal Authority and the Angevin Kings, 1154–1216

England under Henry II's Successors, 1189–1216

Richard I and the French king Philip II became bitter rivals during the Third Crusade. Their rivalry turned into open wa

Royal Authority and the Angevin Kings, 1154–1216

England under Henry II's Successors, 1189–1216

During Richard I's reign, English towns grew and trade expanded, but Jewish communities faced violent persecution. By 11

Royal Authority and the Angevin Kings, 1154–1216

England under Henry II's Successors, 1189–1216

King John ruled England from 1199 to 1216. His suspicious personality, heavy taxation, and manipulation of the law made

Royal Authority and the Angevin Kings, 1154–1216

England under Henry II's Successors, 1189–1216

King John's refusal to accept the Pope's chosen Archbishop of Canterbury triggered a Church-wide punishment called an in

Royal Authority and the Angevin Kings, 1154–1216

England under Henry II's Successors, 1189–1216

Between 1202 and 1204, King John lost Normandy — a vast territory in northern France — to the French king Philip II. Joh

Royal Authority and the Angevin Kings, 1154–1216

England under Henry II's Successors, 1189–1216

King John used military force and political pressure to assert English control over Scotland, Ireland, and Wales. His ca

Royal Authority and the Angevin Kings, 1154–1216

England under Henry II's Successors, 1189–1216

In 1214, John launched a final attempt to win back his French lands. His allies suffered a crushing defeat at the Battle

Royal Authority and the Angevin Kings, 1154–1216

England under Henry II's Successors, 1189–1216

King John's harsh rule pushed powerful nobles called barons into open rebellion. Their leader Robert Fitzwalter forced J

Royal Authority and the Angevin Kings, 1154–1216

England under Henry II's Successors, 1189–1216

In 1215–1216, rebel barons (powerful nobles) went to war against King John. They invited a French prince to take the Eng

Royal Authority and the Angevin Kings, 1154–1216

England under Henry II's Successors, 1189–1216

When John died in 1216, he left England in crisis. A trusted nobleman named William Marshal stepped in to protect John's

Royal Authority and the Angevin Kings, 1154–1216

England under Henry II's Successors, 1189–1216

After Henry II's death in 1189, royal authority — the Crown's ability to govern effectively and command loyalty — faced

Royal Authority and the Angevin Kings, 1154–1216

England: turmoil and triumph, 1547–1603

Edward VI became king at nine years old, so two powerful men — Somerset and then Northumberland — governed England in hi

The Tudors: England, 1485–1603

England: turmoil and triumph, 1547–1603

Under Edward VI, radical Protestant reforms and economic hardship hit ordinary people hard. These pressures triggered ma

The Tudors: England, 1485–1603

England: turmoil and triumph, 1547–1603

Mary I was England's first ruling queen. She faced fierce challenges to her power, struggled to produce an heir, and tie

The Tudors: England, 1485–1603

England: turmoil and triumph, 1547–1603

Mary I reversed England's Protestant reforms and restored Catholicism, causing widespread fear, persecution, and unrest.

The Tudors: England, 1485–1603

England: turmoil and triumph, 1547–1603

Elizabeth I took the throne in 1558 and worked to stabilise England after years of religious chaos. She built a religiou

The Tudors: England, 1485–1603

England: turmoil and triumph, 1547–1603

When Elizabeth became queen in 1558, she inherited serious economic problems, a divided society, and a country split ove

The Tudors: England, 1485–1603

England: turmoil and triumph, 1547–1603

Elizabeth I faced constant pressure over who would inherit her throne. Mary, Queen of Scots, and a deteriorating relatio

The Tudors: England, 1485–1603

England: turmoil and triumph, 1547–1603

Elizabethan society changed in some ways but stayed deeply unequal. Poverty, regional tensions, and anger at the governm

The Tudors: England, 1485–1603

England: turmoil and triumph, 1547–1603

Elizabethan England saw dramatic economic swings. Merchants opened new trade routes, explorers attempted to colonise Ame

The Tudors: England, 1485–1603

England: turmoil and triumph, 1547–1603

Late Elizabethan England produced an explosion of creative achievement in art, literature, and music. Historians call th

The Tudors: England, 1485–1603

England: turmoil and triumph, 1547–1603

By 1603, Elizabeth left England in a fragile state. Political rivalries, economic hardship, religious tensions, and soci

The Tudors: England, 1485–1603

England: turmoil and triumph, 1547–1603

The final decades of Tudor rule were defined by instability and reinvention, as three very different monarchs — Edward V

The Tudors: England, 1485–1603

Enlightenment Russia, 1725–1796

Peter the Great transformed Russia before 1725. His changes to government, the Church, the nobility, and foreign policy

Russia in the Age of Absolutism and Enlightenment, 1682–1796

Enlightenment Russia, 1725–1796

After Peter the Great died in 1725, Russia had no clear rule for choosing a new tsar. Two powerful groups — a noble coun

Russia in the Age of Absolutism and Enlightenment, 1682–1796

Enlightenment Russia, 1725–1796

Tsarina Elizabeth seized power in 1741 and ruled Russia until 1762. She continued Peter the Great's drive to modernise R

Russia in the Age of Absolutism and Enlightenment, 1682–1796

Enlightenment Russia, 1725–1796

After Peter the Great, the nobility gradually won freedom from compulsory state service. Meanwhile, serfs — peasants leg

Russia in the Age of Absolutism and Enlightenment, 1682–1796

Enlightenment Russia, 1725–1796

Between 1725 and 1762, Russia pursued an ambitious foreign policy. It meddled in Polish politics, failed to take Crimea

Russia in the Age of Absolutism and Enlightenment, 1682–1796

Enlightenment Russia, 1725–1796

By 1762, some of Peter the Great's modernising reforms had survived, but others had weakened or reversed. That year, Cat

Russia in the Age of Absolutism and Enlightenment, 1682–1796

Enlightenment Russia, 1725–1796

Catherine the Great ruled Russia from 1762 and admired Enlightenment ideas about reason and reform. The French Revolutio

Russia in the Age of Absolutism and Enlightenment, 1682–1796

Enlightenment Russia, 1725–1796

Catherine the Great tried to modernise how Russia was governed. She reformed its laws, its central Senate, and the way o

Russia in the Age of Absolutism and Enlightenment, 1682–1796

Enlightenment Russia, 1725–1796

Catherine the Great reshaped Russian society by giving the nobility (gentry) greater power over land, expanding educatio

Russia in the Age of Absolutism and Enlightenment, 1682–1796

Enlightenment Russia, 1725–1796

Serfdom — the system that legally tied peasants to a noble's land — survived throughout Catherine's reign. Its survival

Russia in the Age of Absolutism and Enlightenment, 1682–1796

Enlightenment Russia, 1725–1796

Catherine the Great faced serious threats to her rule, including noble plots and a massive peasant uprising led by Emely

Russia in the Age of Absolutism and Enlightenment, 1682–1796

Enlightenment Russia, 1725–1796

Catherine the Great fought wars against Sweden, the Ottoman Empire, and Poland. These wars expanded Russia's territory d

Russia in the Age of Absolutism and Enlightenment, 1682–1796

Enlightenment Russia, 1725–1796

After Peter the Great's death in 1725, Russia entered a turbulent period of disputed successions and unstable rule befor

Russia in the Age of Absolutism and Enlightenment, 1682–1796

establishing the Nation, 1776–1801

In 1776, Britain had a professional army and powerful navy. But the American revolutionaries had home terrain and strong

The Birth of the USA, 1760–1801

establishing the Nation, 1776–1801

France and Spain both joined the war against Britain, giving the Americans vital military and financial support. Their i

The Birth of the USA, 1760–1801

establishing the Nation, 1776–1801

America won the War of Independence through determined political leadership and George Washington's resilient command. B

The Birth of the USA, 1760–1801

establishing the Nation, 1776–1801

After winning the war, American diplomats negotiated the Treaty of Paris in 1783. Britain formally recognised the United

The Birth of the USA, 1760–1801

establishing the Nation, 1776–1801

The Articles of Confederation were America's first rulebook for national government. The thirteen states took five years

The Birth of the USA, 1760–1801

establishing the Nation, 1776–1801

After independence, the thirteen states faced serious problems that threatened to tear the new nation apart. Debt, inequ

The Birth of the USA, 1760–1801

establishing the Nation, 1776–1801

In 1787, America's leading politicians met in Philadelphia to write a new rulebook for governing the country. They clash

The Birth of the USA, 1760–1801

establishing the Nation, 1776–1801

After the Founding Fathers wrote the Constitution in 1787, each state held its own vote to approve or reject it. Nine of

The Birth of the USA, 1760–1801

establishing the Nation, 1776–1801

Washington and Adams were the first two US presidents. They turned the Constitution's written rules about presidential p

The Birth of the USA, 1760–1801

establishing the Nation, 1776–1801

Alexander Hamilton built a financial system to make the new United States stable and creditworthy. His plans gave the ce

The Birth of the USA, 1760–1801

establishing the Nation, 1776–1801

America's first two political parties formed in the 1790s. Jefferson and Madison led the Democratic-Republicans, while H

The Birth of the USA, 1760–1801

establishing the Nation, 1776–1801

By 1801, the USA had survived its first decade as a republic, but deep divisions remained between states, parties, and r

The Birth of the USA, 1760–1801

establishing the Nation, 1776–1801

Winning independence from Britain in 1783 was only the beginning — the harder challenge was turning thirteen loosely con

The Birth of the USA, 1760–1801

From Civil War to World War, 1865–1920

After the Civil War, presidents Johnson and Grant failed to protect the rights of formerly enslaved people in the South.

The making of a Superpower: USA, 1865–1975

From Civil War to World War, 1865–1920

Between 1865 and 1890, American presidents held little real power. Political parties, local bosses, and big donors ran t

The making of a Superpower: USA, 1865–1975

From Civil War to World War, 1865–1920

After the Civil War, deep divisions split Americans by region, race, and social class. African-Americans faced violent o

The making of a Superpower: USA, 1865–1975

From Civil War to World War, 1865–1920

After the Civil War, the US economy exploded in size. Giant companies took control of railways, oil, and farming, and mi

The making of a Superpower: USA, 1865–1975

From Civil War to World War, 1865–1920

Laissez-faire meant the government left businesses to do as they pleased, with little regulation. When the western front

The making of a Superpower: USA, 1865–1975

From Civil War to World War, 1865–1920

After the Civil War, the USA deliberately stayed out of European conflicts and focused on expanding its own territory. T

The making of a Superpower: USA, 1865–1975

From Civil War to World War, 1865–1920

From the 1880s onwards, Americans grew angry at the enormous power of giant corporations. Politicians at both state and

The making of a Superpower: USA, 1865–1975

From Civil War to World War, 1865–1920

Between the 1890s and 1916, a series of politicians challenged the power of big business and corrupt government. Bryan,

The making of a Superpower: USA, 1865–1975

From Civil War to World War, 1865–1920

Between 1865 and 1920, the USA grew into the world's largest industrial economy. That economic power reshaped American s

The making of a Superpower: USA, 1865–1975

From Civil War to World War, 1865–1920

Between 1890 and 1920, millions of immigrants flooded into American cities, transforming society. At the same time, Afri

The making of a Superpower: USA, 1865–1975

From Civil War to World War, 1865–1920

Between 1865 and 1920, the USA shifted from avoiding foreign entanglements to building an overseas empire and fighting a

The making of a Superpower: USA, 1865–1975

From Civil War to World War, 1865–1920

By 1920, the USA had become the world's leading economic power. Yet deep racial divisions, fear of foreigners, and a des

The making of a Superpower: USA, 1865–1975

From Civil War to World War, 1865–1920

Between 1865 and 1920, the United States was transformed from a nation fractured by civil war into an emerging world pow

The making of a Superpower: USA, 1865–1975

from Détente to the end of the Cold War, c1963–1991

President Johnson drew the USA into a full-scale war in Vietnam to stop communism spreading. The war escalated rapidly b

The Cold War, c1945–1991

from Détente to the end of the Cold War, c1963–1991

When Nixon became US president in 1969, he tried to end the Vietnam War by training South Vietnamese troops to fight alo

The Cold War, c1945–1991

from Détente to the end of the Cold War, c1963–1991

After the Cuban Missile Crisis, the USA and USSR chose to cooperate rather than risk nuclear war. They set up a direct c

The Cold War, c1945–1991

from Détente to the end of the Cold War, c1963–1991

In 1968, the Soviet Union crushed a reform movement in Czechoslovakia and declared the right to intervene in any communi

The Cold War, c1945–1991

from Détente to the end of the Cold War, c1963–1991

The 1973 Paris Peace Accords ended direct US military involvement in Vietnam. North Vietnam then conquered the South in

The Cold War, c1945–1991

from Détente to the end of the Cold War, c1963–1991

Détente was a deliberate effort by the superpowers to reduce Cold War tensions through treaties and diplomacy. Between t

The Cold War, c1945–1991

from Détente to the end of the Cold War, c1963–1991

By the late 1970s, superpower tensions surged again after years of uneasy cooperation. A Soviet invasion, aggressive new

The Cold War, c1945–1991

from Détente to the end of the Cold War, c1963–1991

During the Cold War, both Cuba and the USA sent troops or support to other countries to spread their influence. Cuba bac

The Cold War, c1945–1991

from Détente to the end of the Cold War, c1963–1991

After the world came close to nuclear war in 1962, the superpowers entered a period of détente — a deliberate easing of

The Cold War, c1945–1991

Great Power rivalries and entry into war, c1890–1917

Britain and France ran as democracies, where elected politicians shared power. Germany, Russia, and Austria-Hungary were

International Relations and Global Conflict, c1890–1941

Great Power rivalries and entry into war, c1890–1917

By 1900, Britain was losing its position as the world's dominant economy. Germany was catching up fast, and each Great P

International Relations and Global Conflict, c1890–1941

Great Power rivalries and entry into war, c1890–1917

Europe's Great Powers competed fiercely for territory and influence in Africa and the Balkans. These rivalries created d

International Relations and Global Conflict, c1890–1941

Great Power rivalries and entry into war, c1890–1917

By 1900, Europe's major powers had formed competing alliances and nursed deep rivalries. These fault lines made a large-

International Relations and Global Conflict, c1890–1941

Great Power rivalries and entry into war, c1890–1917

Several forces made Europe dangerously unstable before 1914. Balkan nationalism, military build-ups, arms races, and rig

International Relations and Global Conflict, c1890–1941

Great Power rivalries and entry into war, c1890–1917

Between 1904 and 1907, Britain, France, and Russia formed a loose alliance called the Triple Entente. Two crises over Mo

International Relations and Global Conflict, c1890–1941

Great Power rivalries and entry into war, c1890–1917

The Ottoman Empire slowly lost control of its European territories in the late 1800s. A reform movement called the Young

International Relations and Global Conflict, c1890–1941

Great Power rivalries and entry into war, c1890–1917

In 1908, Austria-Hungary seized Bosnia, a region home to millions of Slavic people. This humiliated Russia and Serbia, a

International Relations and Global Conflict, c1890–1941

Great Power rivalries and entry into war, c1890–1917

Two wars fought in 1912–13 shook south-eastern Europe as smaller nations seized territory from the weakening Ottoman Emp

International Relations and Global Conflict, c1890–1941

Great Power rivalries and entry into war, c1890–1917

The July Crisis was the five-week chain of ultimatums and decisions that followed the assassination of Archduke Franz Fe

International Relations and Global Conflict, c1890–1941

Great Power rivalries and entry into war, c1890–1917

Once Russia and Germany began calling up their armies in late July 1914, a chain of military plans locked Europe into fu

International Relations and Global Conflict, c1890–1941

Great Power rivalries and entry into war, c1890–1917

A war that began in Europe pulled in new countries over time. Italy and the USA both joined the conflict, but each had v

International Relations and Global Conflict, c1890–1941

Great Power rivalries and entry into war, c1890–1917

In the decades before 1914, Europe's Great Powers — Britain, France, Germany, Russia, and Austria-Hungary — were locked

International Relations and Global Conflict, c1890–1941

Imperial retreat, 1914–1967

Both World Wars first stretched the British Empire to its greatest size, then helped destroy it. The wars drained Britai

The British Empire, c1857–1967

Imperial retreat, 1914–1967

Britain governed its empire through changing policies across India, Africa, and the Middle East. It also gave self-gover

The British Empire, c1857–1967

Imperial retreat, 1914–1967

Both World Wars cost Britain enormous sums of money and disrupted its trade with the empire. These financial pressures m

The British Empire, c1857–1967

Imperial retreat, 1914–1967

Gandhi led a mass movement that forced Britain to defend its rule over India. He used peaceful protest to expose the con

The British Empire, c1857–1967

Imperial retreat, 1914–1967

Imperialist ideals were beliefs that justified British rule over other peoples. Books, newspapers, exhibitions, and art

The British Empire, c1857–1967

Imperial retreat, 1914–1967

Colonised peoples across the British Empire resisted British rule through protest, conflict, and organised political mov

The British Empire, c1857–1967

Imperial retreat, 1914–1967

Decolonisation means the process by which colonies broke free from British rule and became independent nations. Between

The British Empire, c1857–1967

Imperial retreat, 1914–1967

The 1956 Suez Crisis exposed Britain's shrinking global power. After that humiliation, Britain reshaped its colonial pol

The British Empire, c1857–1967

Imperial retreat, 1914–1967

After both world wars, Britain had to rebuild its shattered economy. These wars damaged imperial trade networks and forc

The British Empire, c1857–1967

Imperial retreat, 1914–1967

Nationalist leaders across Africa and Asia organised resistance to British rule. Their campaigns forced British colonial

The British Empire, c1857–1967

Imperial retreat, 1914–1967

When colonies became independent, Britain did not simply walk away. Political, economic, and cultural connections — and

The British Empire, c1857–1967

Imperial retreat, 1914–1967

Colonised peoples across Africa and Asia increasingly resisted British rule after 1945. Armed uprisings like the Mau Mau

The British Empire, c1857–1967

Imperial retreat, 1914–1967

Where 1J.1 explored how Britain built its empire, this subtopic examines how and why that empire unravelled between 1914

The British Empire, c1857–1967

Louis XIV in decline, 1685–1715

Louis XIV ran France alone, making every major decision himself. After 1685, this system showed serious cracks, and his

The Sun King: Louis XIV, France and Europe, 1643–1715

Louis XIV in decline, 1685–1715

After Louis XIV's finance minister Colbert died in 1683, France's economy weakened badly. Two long, expensive wars then

The Sun King: Louis XIV, France and Europe, 1643–1715

Louis XIV in decline, 1685–1715

Louis XIV fought to control religion in France. He clashed with the Pope, expelled Protestant Huguenots, and persecuted

The Sun King: Louis XIV, France and Europe, 1643–1715

Louis XIV in decline, 1685–1715

Ordinary French people and regional communities pushed back against Louis XIV's rule through protests and resistance. Wa

The Sun King: Louis XIV, France and Europe, 1643–1715

Louis XIV in decline, 1685–1715

In 1688, William of Orange seized the English throne and united England and the Dutch Republic against Louis XIV. This n

The Sun King: Louis XIV, France and Europe, 1643–1715

Louis XIV in decline, 1685–1715

The Grand Alliance was a coalition of European powers that joined forces to stop Louis XIV expanding French territory an

The Sun King: Louis XIV, France and Europe, 1643–1715

Louis XIV in decline, 1685–1715

The Nine Years War (1688–1697) saw Louis XIV fight a vast coalition of European powers across multiple continents. Franc

The Sun King: Louis XIV, France and Europe, 1643–1715

Louis XIV in decline, 1685–1715

By 1697, years of costly war had weakened France and strengthened its rivals. France remained powerful, but other Europe

The Sun King: Louis XIV, France and Europe, 1643–1715

Louis XIV in decline, 1685–1715

When the Spanish king Charles II died childless in 1700, Louis XIV claimed the Spanish throne for his grandson. Other Eu

The Sun King: Louis XIV, France and Europe, 1643–1715

Louis XIV in decline, 1685–1715

The War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714) pitted France against a powerful European coalition. Fighting spread far b

The Sun King: Louis XIV, France and Europe, 1643–1715

Louis XIV in decline, 1685–1715

The Treaty of Utrecht (1713) ended the War of the Spanish Succession. It redistributed territory across Europe and preve

The Sun King: Louis XIV, France and Europe, 1643–1715

Louis XIV in decline, 1685–1715

When Louis XIV died in 1715, he left France in crisis. His chosen arrangements for who would govern after him were quick

The Sun King: Louis XIV, France and Europe, 1643–1715

Louis XIV in decline, 1685–1715

After 1685, the strains of Louis XIV's personal rule — where all major decisions rested with the king alone — became inc

The Sun King: Louis XIV, France and Europe, 1643–1715

Modern Britain, 1979–2007

Margaret Thatcher led three Conservative governments from 1979 to 1990. She won three elections, faced fierce opposition

The Making of Modern Britain, 1951–2007

Modern Britain, 1979–2007

Thatcher used a set of radical economic policies to shrink the state and free up markets. These policies cut inflation b

The Making of Modern Britain, 1951–2007

Modern Britain, 1979–2007

Thatcher's governments changed everyday life through controversial policies on housing, trade unions and taxation. Many

The Making of Modern Britain, 1951–2007

Modern Britain, 1979–2007

Thatcher shaped Britain's place in the world through the Falklands War, a close alliance with the USA, and a deeply scep

The Making of Modern Britain, 1951–2007

Modern Britain, 1979–2007

John Major replaced Margaret Thatcher as Conservative Prime Minister in 1990. His government struggled with economic cri

The Making of Modern Britain, 1951–2007

Modern Britain, 1979–2007

Between 1983 and 1997, three Labour leaders transformed the party from an unelectable left-wing movement into a centrist

The Making of Modern Britain, 1951–2007

Modern Britain, 1979–2007

Between 1979 and 1997, British society changed in complex ways. Some attitudes became more open and tolerant, but the go

The Making of Modern Britain, 1951–2007

Modern Britain, 1979–2007

Between 1979 and 1997, Britain shaped and then clashed with European integration. British governments also helped end th

The Making of Modern Britain, 1951–2007

Modern Britain, 1979–2007

Tony Blair led Labour governments from 1997 to 2007, introducing major reforms to Britain's constitution, economy and pu

The Making of Modern Britain, 1951–2007

Modern Britain, 1979–2007

After losing power in 1997, the Conservative Party struggled with weak leaders and deep internal divisions. These proble

The Making of Modern Britain, 1951–2007

Modern Britain, 1979–2007

Between 1979 and 2007, British society changed dramatically for workers, women, young people and ethnic minorities. Hist

The Making of Modern Britain, 1951–2007

Modern Britain, 1979–2007

Blair's government shaped Britain's place in the world through its approach to Europe, its close alliance with the USA,

The Making of Modern Britain, 1951–2007

Modern Britain, 1979–2007

From Margaret Thatcher's election victory in 1979 to the end of Tony Blair's premiership in 2007, Britain underwent some

The Making of Modern Britain, 1951–2007

Monarchy restored and restrained: Britain, 1649–1702

After executing Charles I in 1649, the new English Republic faced armed threats from Scotland and Ireland. Cromwell crus

Stuart Britain and the Crisis of Monarchy, 1603–1702

Monarchy restored and restrained: Britain, 1649–1702

After Charles I's execution in 1649, England tried to govern itself without a king. Politicians and religious radicals c

Stuart Britain and the Crisis of Monarchy, 1603–1702

Monarchy restored and restrained: Britain, 1649–1702

After abolishing the monarchy, Oliver Cromwell ruled England as Lord Protector. He tried to create stable, godly governm

Stuart Britain and the Crisis of Monarchy, 1603–1702

Monarchy restored and restrained: Britain, 1649–1702

Charles II became king in 1660, but he could not rule alone. He had to govern through Parliament and rely on powerful mi

Stuart Britain and the Crisis of Monarchy, 1603–1702

Monarchy restored and restrained: Britain, 1649–1702

After 1660, MPs and powerful landowners split into two loose groupings. The Court faction supported the king and his min

Stuart Britain and the Crisis of Monarchy, 1603–1702

Monarchy restored and restrained: Britain, 1649–1702

After 1660, England's restored monarchy faced fierce arguments about religion. Radical groups lost power, the official C

Stuart Britain and the Crisis of Monarchy, 1603–1702

Monarchy restored and restrained: Britain, 1649–1702

Parliament tried to ban Charles II's Catholic brother James from ever becoming king. When James became king anyway, he p

Stuart Britain and the Crisis of Monarchy, 1603–1702

Monarchy restored and restrained: Britain, 1649–1702

In 1688, leading English politicians invited the Dutch prince William of Orange to take the throne from the Catholic Kin

Stuart Britain and the Crisis of Monarchy, 1603–1702

Monarchy restored and restrained: Britain, 1649–1702

During the 1670s and 1680s, Britain's ruling class split into two rival political groups called Whigs and Tories. They d

Stuart Britain and the Crisis of Monarchy, 1603–1702

Monarchy restored and restrained: Britain, 1649–1702

After 1660, governments repeatedly tried to decide how much religious freedom different groups should have. Anglicans, P

Stuart Britain and the Crisis of Monarchy, 1603–1702

Monarchy restored and restrained: Britain, 1649–1702

After 1689, William III had to govern through Parliament and rely on ministers from rival political parties. This shifte

Stuart Britain and the Crisis of Monarchy, 1603–1702

Monarchy restored and restrained: Britain, 1649–1702

By 1702, a series of laws had permanently limited royal power and settled who could be king. Parliament now controlled t

Stuart Britain and the Crisis of Monarchy, 1603–1702

Monarchy restored and restrained: Britain, 1649–1702

After the execution of Charles I in 1649, Britain entered a turbulent half-century of political and religious experiment

Stuart Britain and the Crisis of Monarchy, 1603–1702

Nazi Germany, 1933–1945

Between 1933 and 1934, Hitler dismantled German democracy and made himself the country's supreme ruler. He used new laws

Democracy and Nazism: Germany, 1918–1945

Nazi Germany, 1933–1945

The Nazi regime used secret police, rigged courts, and mass propaganda to control German society. Historians debate how

Democracy and Nazism: Germany, 1918–1945

Nazi Germany, 1933–1945

The Nazi regime used economic policy to reduce unemployment and rearm Germany. Two men ran this policy in sequence: Hjal

Democracy and Nazism: Germany, 1918–1945

Nazi Germany, 1933–1945

The Nazis tried to reshape German society by controlling how different groups lived, worked, and thought. They called th

Democracy and Nazism: Germany, 1918–1945

Nazi Germany, 1933–1945

The Nazis used racial ideology to justify persecuting many groups beyond Jewish people. They targeted the mentally ill,

Democracy and Nazism: Germany, 1918–1945

Nazi Germany, 1933–1945

From 1933, the Nazi regime used laws and organised actions to strip Jewish people of their rights and livelihoods. The 1

Democracy and Nazism: Germany, 1918–1945

Nazi Germany, 1933–1945

Between 1933 and 1939, the Nazi regime steadily intensified its persecution of Jewish people through laws, organised vio

Democracy and Nazism: Germany, 1918–1945

Nazi Germany, 1933–1945

When Germany invaded the Soviet Union in 1941, Nazi forces began shooting Jewish communities en masse. The Nazis also fo

Democracy and Nazism: Germany, 1918–1945

Nazi Germany, 1933–1945

The Second World War forced the Nazi regime to control what Germans ate, heard and believed. War hit different groups —

Democracy and Nazism: Germany, 1918–1945

Nazi Germany, 1933–1945

From 1942, Albert Speer reorganised Germany's economy to produce more weapons and supplies for the war. The Nazis also f

Democracy and Nazism: Germany, 1918–1945

Nazi Germany, 1933–1945

Once Hitler became Chancellor in 1933, the Nazi regime moved rapidly to dismantle democracy and replace it with a totali

Democracy and Nazism: Germany, 1918–1945

Peter the Great and Russia, 1682–1725

In 1682, Russia was a poor, rigidly hierarchical country. A single ruler called the Tsar held absolute power, most peopl

Russia in the Age of Absolutism and Enlightenment, 1682–1796

Peter the Great and Russia, 1682–1725

After the death of Tsar Fyodor III in 1682, Peter did not immediately rule alone. His half-sister Sophia acted as regent

Russia in the Age of Absolutism and Enlightenment, 1682–1796

Peter the Great and Russia, 1682–1725

Peter deliberately copied ideas, technology, and customs from Western Europe to modernise Russia. His 1697–98 tour of Eu

Russia in the Age of Absolutism and Enlightenment, 1682–1796

Peter the Great and Russia, 1682–1725

Before 1707, Peter launched sweeping reforms across Russia's economy, government, army, and society. He forced Russia to

Russia in the Age of Absolutism and Enlightenment, 1682–1796

Peter the Great and Russia, 1682–1725

Two powerful groups resisted Peter's early rule. The Orthodox Church defended its traditional authority, and the Strelts

Russia in the Age of Absolutism and Enlightenment, 1682–1796

Peter the Great and Russia, 1682–1725

Peter fought two major wars to win Russia access to the sea. He fought Turkey for a southern outlet and Sweden for a nor

Russia in the Age of Absolutism and Enlightenment, 1682–1796

Peter the Great and Russia, 1682–1725

Peter overhauled Russia's economy and tax system to fund his wars and modernise the state. Historians debate how far the

Russia in the Age of Absolutism and Enlightenment, 1682–1796

Peter the Great and Russia, 1682–1725

Peter restructured the Russian Orthodox Church so the Tsar controlled it directly. He replaced its independent leader wi

Russia in the Age of Absolutism and Enlightenment, 1682–1796

Peter the Great and Russia, 1682–1725

Peter restructured how Russia was governed and defended. He replaced old noble councils with new state bodies, built a m

Russia in the Age of Absolutism and Enlightenment, 1682–1796

Peter the Great and Russia, 1682–1725

Peter forced Russian nobles and officials to adopt Western European customs, dress, and manners. Historians debate how d

Russia in the Age of Absolutism and Enlightenment, 1682–1796

Peter the Great and Russia, 1682–1725

Peter faced serious rebellions from soldiers, nomadic peoples, and Cossacks who resented his reforms. Even his own son A

Russia in the Age of Absolutism and Enlightenment, 1682–1796

Peter the Great and Russia, 1682–1725

Peter fought major wars against Sweden and Turkey to win Russia access to the sea. These wars also pulled Russia into wi

Russia in the Age of Absolutism and Enlightenment, 1682–1796

Peter the Great and Russia, 1682–1725

When Peter came to power, Russia was an economically backward country dominated by a rigid social hierarchy, with the ma

Russia in the Age of Absolutism and Enlightenment, 1682–1796

Philip II's Spain, 1556–1598

Philip II became king of Spain in 1556 and ruled a vast empire. His personal character and working methods shaped how he

Spain in the Age of Discovery, 1469–1598

Philip II's Spain, 1556–1598

Philip II faced challenges to his power from rival nobles at court and from rebellious groups within Spain itself. He us

Spain in the Age of Discovery, 1469–1598

Philip II's Spain, 1556–1598

Philip II used religion to hold Spanish society together and project royal power. He worked with the Jesuits and the Inq

Spain in the Age of Discovery, 1469–1598

Philip II's Spain, 1556–1598

Philip II ruled a vast empire that poured silver into Spain from the Americas. Yet he still ran out of money repeatedly,

Spain in the Age of Discovery, 1469–1598

Philip II's Spain, 1556–1598

Philip II's reign produced a remarkable burst of Spanish art, literature, and ideas known as the Golden Age. Wealth from

Spain in the Age of Discovery, 1469–1598

Philip II's Spain, 1556–1598

By 1598, Spain looked powerful but faced serious hidden problems. Philip II left behind a country with real strengths in

Spain in the Age of Discovery, 1469–1598

Philip II's Spain, 1556–1598

When Philip II became king in 1556, he inherited a vast empire spanning Europe and the Americas. He used a powerful army

Spain in the Age of Discovery, 1469–1598

Philip II's Spain, 1556–1598

Philip II used military victory and political meddling to push France out of Italy and keep it too weak to challenge Spa

Spain in the Age of Discovery, 1469–1598

Philip II's Spain, 1556–1598

Philip II fought the Ottoman Turks for control of the Mediterranean Sea. He also took over Portugal in 1580, uniting the

Spain in the Age of Discovery, 1469–1598

Philip II's Spain, 1556–1598

Philip II faced a long, costly rebellion in the Netherlands and a deepening conflict with England. That rivalry spilled

Spain in the Age of Discovery, 1469–1598

Philip II's Spain, 1556–1598

During Philip II's reign, Spain controlled a vast empire in the Americas. That empire brought enormous wealth — but also

Spain in the Age of Discovery, 1469–1598

Philip II's Spain, 1556–1598

By 1598, Spain looked like the world's greatest power. Historians debate whether that dominance was real or a facade hid

Spain in the Age of Discovery, 1469–1598

Philip II's Spain, 1556–1598

When Philip II inherited the Spanish crown in 1556, he ruled over one of the most powerful empires in the world, stretch

Spain in the Age of Discovery, 1469–1598

prosperity, inequality and Superpower status, 1945–1963

By 1945, the Second World War left the USA richer and more powerful than ever. But deep divisions — by race, region and

The American Dream: reality and illusion, 1945–1980

prosperity, inequality and Superpower status, 1945–1963

After 1945, President Truman led the USA as the world's most powerful nation. He built a foreign policy around stopping

The American Dream: reality and illusion, 1945–1980

prosperity, inequality and Superpower status, 1945–1963

After World War Two, President Truman faced three big challenges at home: rebuilding the economy, managing fierce politi

The American Dream: reality and illusion, 1945–1980

prosperity, inequality and Superpower status, 1945–1963

The Second World War raised African-Americans' expectations of equality. Black Americans then organised campaigns to dem

The American Dream: reality and illusion, 1945–1980

prosperity, inequality and Superpower status, 1945–1963

Eisenhower won the 1952 presidency and governed as a moderate conservative, calming Cold War fears at home. His vice-pre

The American Dream: reality and illusion, 1945–1980

prosperity, inequality and Superpower status, 1945–1963

In the 1950s, the American economy boomed and millions of ordinary families bought cars, televisions and homes for the f

The American Dream: reality and illusion, 1945–1980

prosperity, inequality and Superpower status, 1945–1963

After 1945, the USA competed globally with the Soviet Union to stop communism spreading. American presidents responded t

The American Dream: reality and illusion, 1945–1980

prosperity, inequality and Superpower status, 1945–1963

During the 1950s, African-Americans organised a growing movement to end racial discrimination. Political parties and gov

The American Dream: reality and illusion, 1945–1980

prosperity, inequality and Superpower status, 1945–1963

In 1960, John F. Kennedy narrowly defeated Richard Nixon to become president. He promised a bold programme of reform cal

The American Dream: reality and illusion, 1945–1980

prosperity, inequality and Superpower status, 1945–1963

By the early 1960s, America's claim to be the world's most powerful nation faced serious tests. Berlin, Cuba and Vietnam

The American Dream: reality and illusion, 1945–1980

prosperity, inequality and Superpower status, 1945–1963

By the early 1960s, African Americans were organising mass protests against racial discrimination. Kennedy faced intense

The American Dream: reality and illusion, 1945–1980

prosperity, inequality and Superpower status, 1945–1963

By 1963, the USA led the world in military and economic power. Yet beneath that confidence, women and young people were

The American Dream: reality and illusion, 1945–1980

prosperity, inequality and Superpower status, 1945–1963

Emerging from the Second World War as the world's dominant military and economic force, the United States appeared to em

The American Dream: reality and illusion, 1945–1980

Radicalism, Republic and Restoration, 1642–1660

When the Civil War began in 1642, King Charles I led the Royalist side. His leadership had real strengths but also serio

The English Revolution, 1625–1660

Radicalism, Republic and Restoration, 1642–1660

Parliament won the First Civil War partly by reforming its own army and leadership. Three key changes — the Scottish all

The English Revolution, 1625–1660

Radicalism, Republic and Restoration, 1642–1660

As the Civil War continued, ordinary Londoners, soldiers, and writers began demanding far more dramatic change than Parl

The English Revolution, 1625–1660

Radicalism, Republic and Restoration, 1642–1660

Parliament won the First Civil War in 1646, but its leaders immediately split over what to do next. Charles I exploited

The English Revolution, 1625–1660

Radicalism, Republic and Restoration, 1642–1660

During the 1640s and 1650s, soldiers, preachers and ordinary people pushed for radical changes to politics and religion.

The English Revolution, 1625–1660

Radicalism, Republic and Restoration, 1642–1660

After the First Civil War, Parliament and the King repeatedly failed to agree a peace deal. Charles refused to make real

The English Revolution, 1625–1660

Radicalism, Republic and Restoration, 1642–1660

In 1648, Charles I secretly allied with Scotland and triggered a second round of fighting against Parliament. Parliament

The English Revolution, 1625–1660

Radicalism, Republic and Restoration, 1642–1660

After the Second Civil War, Parliament and the army split over what to do with Charles I. A minority forced through his

The English Revolution, 1625–1660

Radicalism, Republic and Restoration, 1642–1660

Once armed conflict broke out in 1642, the question was no longer whether England would fight its king, but what kind of

The English Revolution, 1625–1660

Reformation Europe, 1531–1564

After 1531, Lutheranism spread across new regions and social groups. Luther and his colleague Melanchthon shaped its bel

The Reformation in Europe, c1500–1564

Reformation Europe, 1531–1564

Some reformers pushed far beyond Luther, rejecting infant baptism and demanding radical social change. The most dramatic

The Reformation in Europe, c1500–1564

Reformation Europe, 1531–1564

By 1531, Germany had split between Catholic and Lutheran rulers. Protestant princes formed a military alliance called th

The Reformation in Europe, c1500–1564

Reformation Europe, 1531–1564

In 1541, Catholic and Protestant leaders met at Regensburg to negotiate a religious settlement. They briefly agreed on o

The Reformation in Europe, c1500–1564

Reformation Europe, 1531–1564

John Calvin became the most influential Protestant reformer after Luther. His legal training, humanist education, and ti

The Reformation in Europe, c1500–1564

Reformation Europe, 1531–1564

Calvin ran Geneva as a strictly disciplined Protestant city, but faced real opposition. His execution of Servetus and hi

The Reformation in Europe, c1500–1564

Reformation Europe, 1531–1564

Calvin's version of Protestantism spread far beyond Geneva after the 1540s. It took root in France, Scotland, the Nether

The Reformation in Europe, c1500–1564

Reformation Europe, 1531–1564

Germany's religious conflict ended in 1555 with the Peace of Augsburg. This treaty let each German prince choose Catholi

The Reformation in Europe, c1500–1564

Reformation Europe, 1531–1564

From the 1530s, a series of popes took active steps to reform and defend the Catholic Church from within. They commissio

The Reformation in Europe, c1500–1564

Reformation Europe, 1531–1564

The Catholic Church fought back against the Reformation by creating new religious orders. The most powerful was the Jesu

The Reformation in Europe, c1500–1564

Reformation Europe, 1531–1564

The Council of Trent was a series of major Catholic Church meetings held between 1545 and 1563. Church leaders used it t

The Reformation in Europe, c1500–1564

Reformation Europe, 1531–1564

By 1564, the Reformation had permanently changed Europe. Monarchs, priests, and ordinary people all responded differentl

The Reformation in Europe, c1500–1564

Reformation Europe, 1531–1564

By 1531, the Reformation — the movement to challenge and reform the Catholic Church — had taken root, and this subtopic

The Reformation in Europe, c1500–1564

Society in Crisis, 1906–1929

In 1906, the Liberal Party won a landslide election victory. They then governed Britain with a new philosophy — using th

Wars and Welfare: Britain in Transition, 1906–1957

Society in Crisis, 1906–1929

By 1906, Britain's economy had serious weaknesses. Older industries like coal and textiles were ageing, foreign rivals w

Wars and Welfare: Britain in Transition, 1906–1957

Society in Crisis, 1906–1929

Edwardian Britain had deep poverty and sharp class divisions. The Liberal governments after 1906 tackled these problems

Wars and Welfare: Britain in Transition, 1906–1957

Society in Crisis, 1906–1929

Between 1906 and 1914, four major crises hit Britain at once. The government faced clashes over Parliament's powers, dem

Wars and Welfare: Britain in Transition, 1906–1957

Society in Crisis, 1906–1929

The First World War forced Britain's political parties to share power in a coalition government. This reshuffled who hel

Wars and Welfare: Britain in Transition, 1906–1957

Society in Crisis, 1906–1929

The First World War left Britain with serious economic damage. Old industries like coal and textiles struggled, workers

Wars and Welfare: Britain in Transition, 1906–1957

Society in Crisis, 1906–1929

The First World War transformed British society in ways that went far beyond the battlefield. It changed who could vote,

Wars and Welfare: Britain in Transition, 1906–1957

Society in Crisis, 1906–1929

Irish nationalists staged a rebellion against British rule in 1916. Years of conflict followed, ending in a 1921 treaty

Wars and Welfare: Britain in Transition, 1906–1957

Society in Crisis, 1906–1929

Between 1922 and 1929, the Liberal Party collapsed as a major force. Labour briefly held power for the first time. The C

Wars and Welfare: Britain in Transition, 1906–1957

Society in Crisis, 1906–1929

After the First World War, Britain struggled to rebuild its economy. A series of bad government decisions and collapsing

Wars and Welfare: Britain in Transition, 1906–1957

Society in Crisis, 1906–1929

After the First World War, British society changed rapidly. Unemployment split the country by region, women gained new f

Wars and Welfare: Britain in Transition, 1906–1957

Society in Crisis, 1906–1929

In 1929, Britain held a general election in which women under 30 could vote for the first time. Labour won the most seat

Wars and Welfare: Britain in Transition, 1906–1957

Society in Crisis, 1906–1929

Between 1906 and 1929, Britain faced a series of overlapping pressures — poverty, industrial decline, demands for Irish

Wars and Welfare: Britain in Transition, 1906–1957

Stalin's Rule, 1929–1953

From 1929, Stalin forced Soviet peasants to give up their private land and farm together on state-controlled collective

Revolution and dictatorship: Russia, 1917–1953

Stalin's Rule, 1929–1953

Stalin used a series of Five Year Plans to turn the Soviet Union into a major industrial power. A central planning agenc

Revolution and dictatorship: Russia, 1917–1953

Stalin's Rule, 1929–1953

Stalin used art, literature, and mass propaganda to build a cult of personality — a system that portrayed him as an all-

Revolution and dictatorship: Russia, 1917–1953

Stalin's Rule, 1929–1953

By 1941, Stalin's policies had made the Soviet Union a major industrial power. But they had also left millions of people

Revolution and dictatorship: Russia, 1917–1953

Stalin's Rule, 1929–1953

Stalin used a secret police force, staged trials, and political purges to terrorise and eliminate anyone he saw as a thr

Revolution and dictatorship: Russia, 1917–1953

Stalin's Rule, 1929–1953

Between 1936 and 1938, Stalin unleashed a wave of mass arrests, executions, and forced labour that killed or imprisoned

Revolution and dictatorship: Russia, 1917–1953

Stalin's Rule, 1929–1953

Once Stalin consolidated power after 1929, he set about transforming the Soviet Union through rapid industrialisation an

Revolution and dictatorship: Russia, 1917–1953

The Age of Reform: Britain, 1832–1885

After 1832, the Whigs under Grey and Melbourne governed Britain with a belief in cautious, top-down reform. Meanwhile, R

Industrialisation and the people: Britain, c1783–1885

The Age of Reform: Britain, 1832–1885

In the 1830s, the Whig government passed a series of laws to tackle urgent social problems. These reforms tackled child

Industrialisation and the people: Britain, c1783–1885

The Age of Reform: Britain, 1832–1885

Between 1832 and 1846, organised popular movements pushed the government to change its laws and policies. These movement

Industrialisation and the people: Britain, c1783–1885

The Age of Reform: Britain, 1832–1885

Under Robert Peel, the Conservatives reformed Britain's finances and economy in the 1840s. The Bank Charter Act of 1844

Industrialisation and the people: Britain, c1783–1885

The Age of Reform: Britain, 1832–1885

Railways transformed Britain's economy after 1830 by moving goods and people faster than ever before. Repealing the Corn

Industrialisation and the people: Britain, c1783–1885

The Age of Reform: Britain, 1832–1885

Rapid industrialisation packed millions of people into overcrowded, dangerous cities. Workers responded by forming union

Industrialisation and the people: Britain, c1783–1885

The Age of Reform: Britain, 1832–1885

Between 1846 and 1859, Britain's old political parties broke apart and reformed. A new Liberal Party emerged from an unl

Industrialisation and the people: Britain, c1783–1885

The Age of Reform: Britain, 1832–1885

Gladstone and Disraeli dominated British politics from the 1860s to the 1880s. Each led governments that passed major la

Industrialisation and the people: Britain, c1783–1885

The Age of Reform: Britain, 1832–1885

Between 1846 and 1885, organised groups pushed the government to reform public health, extend democracy, and address Iri

Industrialisation and the people: Britain, c1783–1885

The Age of Reform: Britain, 1832–1885

Britain's economy surged dramatically in the 1850s and 1860s, then slowed sharply after 1873. Farmers, factory owners, a

Industrialisation and the people: Britain, c1783–1885

The Age of Reform: Britain, 1832–1885

Victorian Britain grew wealthier overall, but poverty, religion, and class shaped how different people experienced that

Industrialisation and the people: Britain, c1783–1885

The Age of Reform: Britain, 1832–1885

By 1885, Britain had changed enormously since 1832. This learning point asks how democratic, how prosperous, and how fai

Industrialisation and the people: Britain, c1783–1885

The Age of Reform: Britain, 1832–1885

Following the social upheaval of early industrialisation, this period examines how British governments — Whig, Conservat

Industrialisation and the people: Britain, c1783–1885

the break from Rome, c1529–1547

Before 1529, the Church held enormous power in England. It advised the king, ran its own law courts, owned vast land, an

Religious conflict and the Church in England, c1529–c1570

the break from Rome, c1529–1547

Before the Reformation, ordinary people expressed their faith through shared rituals, community groups, and core beliefs

Religious conflict and the Church in England, c1529–c1570

the break from Rome, c1529–1547

Before the Reformation, two groups challenged the Catholic Church in England. The Lollards questioned core Church teachi

Religious conflict and the Church in England, c1529–c1570

the break from Rome, c1529–1547

Many people in England criticised the Church for corrupt practices before the Reformation. Clergy sold religious offices

Religious conflict and the Church in England, c1529–c1570

the break from Rome, c1529–1547

Henry VIII wanted to end his marriage to Catherine of Aragon so he could remarry and father a male heir. This personal c

Religious conflict and the Church in England, c1529–c1570

the break from Rome, c1529–1547

Between 1529 and 1534, Henry VIII used Parliament to pass a series of laws. These laws stripped the Pope of his authorit

Religious conflict and the Church in England, c1529–c1570

the break from Rome, c1529–1547

Factions — rival groups competing for royal favour — shaped how the break from Rome happened. Some powerful figures back

Religious conflict and the Church in England, c1529–c1570

the break from Rome, c1529–1547

By 1536, Henry VIII had broken England's political ties with Rome. But he kept most Catholic beliefs and church practice

Religious conflict and the Church in England, c1529–c1570

the break from Rome, c1529–1547

After the break from Rome, two rival groups competed to shape the English Church. Reformists pushed for Protestant-style

Religious conflict and the Church in England, c1529–c1570

the break from Rome, c1529–1547

Henry VIII shut down England's monasteries between 1536 and 1541, seizing their land and wealth. Thousands of people res

Religious conflict and the Church in England, c1529–c1570

the break from Rome, c1529–1547

Henry VIII changed some religious beliefs and practices after breaking from Rome, but kept others. A series of official

Religious conflict and the Church in England, c1529–c1570

the break from Rome, c1529–1547

By Henry VIII's death in 1547, the English Church was deeply divided over religious doctrine. Political pressures — incl

Religious conflict and the Church in England, c1529–c1570

the break from Rome, c1529–1547

England's break from the Roman Catholic Church under Henry VIII was driven by a collision of personal, political, and re

Religious conflict and the Church in England, c1529–c1570

The crisis of Liberal Italy and the Rise of Mussolini, c1900–1926

By 1900, Italy was a young, fragile country riddled with deep divisions. Unification in the 1860s had created one nation

Italy and Fascism, c1900–1945

The crisis of Liberal Italy and the Rise of Mussolini, c1900–1926

Italy's pre-Fascist government was controlled by a small elite of liberal politicians. Giovanni Giolitti dominated this

Italy and Fascism, c1900–1945

The crisis of Liberal Italy and the Rise of Mussolini, c1900–1926

Rapid industrial growth in early twentieth-century Italy created a large, angry working class. Workers began supporting

Italy and Fascism, c1900–1945

The crisis of Liberal Italy and the Rise of Mussolini, c1900–1926

Before 1915, Italy pursued an aggressive foreign policy to win colonies and great-power status. Repeated failures abroad

Italy and Fascism, c1900–1945

The crisis of Liberal Italy and the Rise of Mussolini, c1900–1926

Italy entered the First World War in 1915 expecting quick territorial gains. Instead, the war brought military disaster

Italy and Fascism, c1900–1945

The crisis of Liberal Italy and the Rise of Mussolini, c1900–1926

Many Italians felt cheated by the peace treaties after World War One. They called this betrayal the 'Mutilated Victory'.

Italy and Fascism, c1900–1945

The crisis of Liberal Italy and the Rise of Mussolini, c1900–1926

After the First World War, Italy suffered rising prices, mass unemployment, and weak governments. These hardships pushed

Italy and Fascism, c1900–1945

The crisis of Liberal Italy and the Rise of Mussolini, c1900–1926

Between 1919 and 1922, mass strikes paralysed Italy and Fascist squads attacked their opponents in the streets. Parliame

Italy and Fascism, c1900–1945

The crisis of Liberal Italy and the Rise of Mussolini, c1900–1926

In October 1922, King Victor Emmanuel III appointed Mussolini as prime minister. Mussolini used the threat of a Fascist

Italy and Fascism, c1900–1945

The crisis of Liberal Italy and the Rise of Mussolini, c1900–1926

Fascism was a radical nationalist movement that rejected both socialism and liberal democracy. Mussolini led it by proje

Italy and Fascism, c1900–1945

The crisis of Liberal Italy and the Rise of Mussolini, c1900–1926

Liberal Italy — the parliamentary system that governed the country after unification in the 1860s — entered the twentiet

Italy and Fascism, c1900–1945

The Crusader states and Outremer, c1071–1149

By 1071, the Christian Church dominated everyday life across western Europe. The Pope — the Church's leader in Rome — wa

The Age of the Crusades, c1071–1204

The Crusader states and Outremer, c1071–1149

By 1071, a Turkish Muslim group called the Seljuks had built a vast empire stretching from Central Asia into the Middle

The Age of the Crusades, c1071–1204

The Crusader states and Outremer, c1071–1149

By 1071, the Byzantine Empire — the powerful Christian empire centred on Constantinople — had weakened badly from within

The Age of the Crusades, c1071–1204

The Crusader states and Outremer, c1071–1149

In 1095, Pope Urban II called on Christian knights to march east and recapture Jerusalem. He had both religious reasons

The Age of the Crusades, c1071–1204

The Crusader states and Outremer, c1071–1149

Different people joined the First Crusade for very different reasons. Powerful lords like Raymond of Toulouse wanted lan

The Age of the Crusades, c1071–1204

The Crusader states and Outremer, c1071–1149

The First Crusade (1096–1099) was a military expedition that captured Jerusalem. It reshaped three worlds: the Muslim Ne

The Age of the Crusades, c1071–1204

The Crusader states and Outremer, c1071–1149

After the First Crusade, Christian rulers built and expanded a group of states in the Middle East called Outremer. Baldw

The Age of the Crusades, c1071–1204

The Crusader states and Outremer, c1071–1149

The Templars and Hospitallers were organisations of warrior-monks. They defended the Crusader states, cared for pilgrims

The Age of the Crusades, c1071–1204

The Crusader states and Outremer, c1071–1149

The Crusader states had to manage four very different neighbours and allies at once. Each relationship — with Byzantium,

The Age of the Crusades, c1071–1204

The Crusader states and Outremer, c1071–1149

After the Crusaders carved out states in the Muslim world, the Islamic response was slow and divided. Zengi, a powerful

The Age of the Crusades, c1071–1204

The Crusader states and Outremer, c1071–1149

The Second Crusade was a military expedition launched in 1147 after Muslims captured the Crusader county of Edessa. It e

The Age of the Crusades, c1071–1204

The Crusader states and Outremer, c1071–1149

The Second Crusade (1147–1149) failed badly. Its failure changed the balance of power across four different worlds: the

The Age of the Crusades, c1071–1204

The Crusader states and Outremer, c1071–1149

By 1071, a collision of forces — a resurgent Papacy seeking authority, the rising Seljuk Turks pressing into Christian l

The Age of the Crusades, c1071–1204

the emergence of the Affluent Society, 1929–1957

When the Great Depression hit Britain in 1929, the Labour government collapsed under the pressure. A cross-party Nationa

Wars and Welfare: Britain in Transition, 1906–1957

the emergence of the Affluent Society, 1929–1957

The Great Depression after 1929 forced Britain to abandon old economic rules and try new ones. Governments scrapped the

Wars and Welfare: Britain in Transition, 1906–1957

the emergence of the Affluent Society, 1929–1957

The Great Depression after 1929 hit British society hard and unevenly. It changed how people worked, how they lived, and

Wars and Welfare: Britain in Transition, 1906–1957

the emergence of the Affluent Society, 1929–1957

In the 1930s, three forces threatened Britain's political stability. King Edward VIII's decision to abdicate, the rise o

Wars and Welfare: Britain in Transition, 1906–1957

the emergence of the Affluent Society, 1929–1957

Britain's wartime and post-war politics centred on three leaders. Chamberlain fell from power in 1940, Churchill led Bri

Wars and Welfare: Britain in Transition, 1906–1957

the emergence of the Affluent Society, 1929–1957

During the Second World War, Britain directed its entire economy towards fighting. After 1945, the Labour government str

Wars and Welfare: Britain in Transition, 1906–1957

the emergence of the Affluent Society, 1929–1957

The Second World War touched every part of British life. It forced the government to reshape society — and those changes

Wars and Welfare: Britain in Transition, 1906–1957

the emergence of the Affluent Society, 1929–1957

By 1951, Labour lost power after six years of reform. A mix of public exhaustion with rationing, internal party splits,

Wars and Welfare: Britain in Transition, 1906–1957

the emergence of the Affluent Society, 1929–1957

The Conservatives won three elections in a row between 1951 and 1959. They stayed in power by managing a booming economy

Wars and Welfare: Britain in Transition, 1906–1957

the emergence of the Affluent Society, 1929–1957

After World War Two, Britain's economy grew rapidly and living standards rose. But the government repeatedly had to slam

Wars and Welfare: Britain in Transition, 1906–1957

the emergence of the Affluent Society, 1929–1957

By the early 1950s, most British people earned more and spent more than ever before. New consumer goods, shifting class

Wars and Welfare: Britain in Transition, 1906–1957

the emergence of the Affluent Society, 1929–1957

By 1957, Britain faced two new anxieties. Migrants arriving from the Caribbean and South Asia met hostility and discrimi

Wars and Welfare: Britain in Transition, 1906–1957

the emergence of the Affluent Society, 1929–1957

Between 1929 and 1957, Britain was reshaped by three seismic forces: the Great Depression, the Second World War, and the

Wars and Welfare: Britain in Transition, 1906–1957

The emergence of the People's Republic of China, 1936–1962

By 1936, China faced invasion from Japan and internal political crisis. Jiang Jieshi led the Guomindang — China's ruling

The Transformation of China, 1936–1997

The emergence of the People's Republic of China, 1936–1962

The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) was a revolutionary political movement led by Mao Zedong. It built its power among Chi

The Transformation of China, 1936–1997

The emergence of the People's Republic of China, 1936–1962

Japan's invasion of China forced the Nationalist GMD and Communist CCP to temporarily stop fighting each other. The war

The Transformation of China, 1936–1997

The emergence of the People's Republic of China, 1936–1962

When Japan surrendered in 1945, the fragile wartime alliance between China's Nationalists and Communists collapsed. Both

The Transformation of China, 1936–1997

The emergence of the People's Republic of China, 1936–1962

By 1949, Mao's Communist forces had defeated Jiang Jieshi's Nationalist government. A ruined economy, rampant inflation,

The Transformation of China, 1936–1997

The emergence of the People's Republic of China, 1936–1962

When Mao founded the People's Republic of China in 1949, the Communist Party controlled every level of government. Mao s

The Transformation of China, 1936–1997

The emergence of the People's Republic of China, 1936–1962

After winning the Civil War in 1949, Mao used campaigns, violence, and land redistribution to crush opposition and bind

The Transformation of China, 1936–1997

The emergence of the People's Republic of China, 1936–1962

After 1949, the new People's Republic of China had to define its place in the world. Mao's government fought in Korea, s

The Transformation of China, 1936–1997

The emergence of the People's Republic of China, 1936–1962

Mao used purges and political campaigns to control the Communist Party and silence critics. His 100 Flowers campaign bri

The Transformation of China, 1936–1997

The emergence of the People's Republic of China, 1936–1962

Mao tried to rapidly transform China's economy through mass collectivisation and crash industrialisation. His Great Leap

The Transformation of China, 1936–1997

The emergence of the People's Republic of China, 1936–1962

After taking power, Mao's government reshaped Chinese society through political purges, new rights for women, and forced

The Transformation of China, 1936–1997

The emergence of the People's Republic of China, 1936–1962

China fought in the Korean War and later fell out badly with the Soviet Union. Mao and Soviet leader Khrushchev clashed

The Transformation of China, 1936–1997

The emergence of the People's Republic of China, 1936–1962

Between 1936 and 1962, China was transformed from a country torn apart by Japanese invasion and civil war into the Peopl

The Transformation of China, 1936–1997

the end of Absolutism and the French Revolution, 1774–1795

Before the Revolution, France ran on a system called absolutism — the king held total power and society divided into rig

France in Revolution, 1774–1815

the end of Absolutism and the French Revolution, 1774–1795

Enlightenment thinkers called philosophes challenged the idea that kings had a God-given right to rule. Their ideas spre

France in Revolution, 1774–1815

the end of Absolutism and the French Revolution, 1774–1795

France was nearly bankrupt in the 1770s and 1780s. Three finance ministers — Turgot, Necker, and Calonne — each tried to

France in Revolution, 1774–1815

the end of Absolutism and the French Revolution, 1774–1795

Between 1787 and 1789, France's king tried and failed to fix a financial crisis through a series of emergency meetings.

France in Revolution, 1774–1815

the end of Absolutism and the French Revolution, 1774–1795

Between May and October 1789, revolution spread across France. Political crisis at Versailles, popular uprisings in Pari

France in Revolution, 1774–1815

the end of Absolutism and the French Revolution, 1774–1795

Between 1789 and 1792, France's new National Assembly replaced absolute royal rule with a system of laws. It restructure

France in Revolution, 1774–1815

the end of Absolutism and the French Revolution, 1774–1795

As the Revolution reshaped France, different groups pushed back or pushed further. The king tried to flee the country, r

France in Revolution, 1774–1815

the end of Absolutism and the French Revolution, 1774–1795

Radical working-class Parisians called sans-culottes helped destroy France's first attempt at constitutional monarchy in

France in Revolution, 1774–1815

the end of Absolutism and the French Revolution, 1774–1795

After abolishing the monarchy in September 1792, France became a Republic. Politicians then debated what to do with the

France in Revolution, 1774–1815

the end of Absolutism and the French Revolution, 1774–1795

By 1793, France faced war against most of Europe and a violent rebellion at home. These twin crises destroyed the modera

France in Revolution, 1774–1815

the end of Absolutism and the French Revolution, 1774–1795

By mid-1793, France faced invasion on multiple borders and rebellion at home. The government responded by drafting the e

France in Revolution, 1774–1815

the end of Absolutism and the French Revolution, 1774–1795

During the Terror (1793–94), the revolutionary government executed thousands of people it labelled enemies of France. A

France in Revolution, 1774–1815

the end of Absolutism and the French Revolution, 1774–1795

France in the 1770s was governed by absolutism — a system in which the king held supreme, unchecked power — but by 1795

France in Revolution, 1774–1815

The establishment of a 'New Monarchy', 1469–1556

In 1469, the Iberian Peninsula was a patchwork of separate, often rival kingdoms. No single ruler controlled the region,

Spain in the Age of Discovery, 1469–1598

The establishment of a 'New Monarchy', 1469–1556

Ferdinand and Isabella rebuilt royal power across their kingdoms after decades of noble disorder. They created shared in

Spain in the Age of Discovery, 1469–1598

The establishment of a 'New Monarchy', 1469–1556

Ferdinand and Isabella managed four distinct social groups to strengthen royal power. They rewarded, restricted, or refo

Spain in the Age of Discovery, 1469–1598

The establishment of a 'New Monarchy', 1469–1556

Ferdinand and Isabella used religion to unify Spain. They expelled or forcibly converted Muslims and Jews, completing a

Spain in the Age of Discovery, 1469–1598

The establishment of a 'New Monarchy', 1469–1556

Spain's economy grew unevenly under Ferdinand and Isabella. New trade routes and overseas exploration brought wealth, bu

Spain in the Age of Discovery, 1469–1598

The establishment of a 'New Monarchy', 1469–1556

By 1516, Ferdinand and Isabella had pulled Spain's separate kingdoms closer together. But real unity remained incomplete

Spain in the Age of Discovery, 1469–1598

The establishment of a 'New Monarchy', 1469–1556

When Charles I became king in 1516, many Spaniards resented him as a foreign ruler. Two major revolts — the Comuneros an

Spain in the Age of Discovery, 1469–1598

The establishment of a 'New Monarchy', 1469–1556

Charles I ruled a vast empire by using a network of specialist councils to govern different territories. He also careful

Spain in the Age of Discovery, 1469–1598

The establishment of a 'New Monarchy', 1469–1556

Charles I fought wars across Europe to defend and expand Spanish power. He also led military campaigns against the Ottom

Spain in the Age of Discovery, 1469–1598

The establishment of a 'New Monarchy', 1469–1556

Ferdinand, Isabella, and Charles used the Catholic Church as a tool of royal power. They controlled Church appointments,

Spain in the Age of Discovery, 1469–1598

The establishment of a 'New Monarchy', 1469–1556

Spanish soldiers called conquistadores (conquerors) seized vast territories in the Americas from the 1490s onwards. The

Spain in the Age of Discovery, 1469–1598

The establishment of a 'New Monarchy', 1469–1556

By 1556, Spain had become a vast empire with a powerful monarchy, a Church-backed Inquisition, and enormous wealth from

Spain in the Age of Discovery, 1469–1598

The establishment of a 'New Monarchy', 1469–1556

Between 1469 and 1556, the monarchs of Spain transformed a fragmented collection of rival kingdoms on the Iberian Penins

Spain in the Age of Discovery, 1469–1598

the establishment of the Church of England, 1547–c1570

When nine-year-old Edward VI became king in 1547, two powerful men took turns running England for him. Somerset and then

Religious conflict and the Church in England, c1529–c1570

the establishment of the Church of England, 1547–c1570

During Edward VI's reign, Archbishop Cranmer rewrote the rules of English worship twice, replacing Catholic rituals with

Religious conflict and the Church in England, c1529–c1570

the establishment of the Church of England, 1547–c1570

Some people violently resisted the Protestant reforms of Edward VI's reign. Others accepted or actively promoted them. B

Religious conflict and the Church in England, c1529–c1570

the establishment of the Church of England, 1547–c1570

When Edward VI was dying in 1553, the Protestant Duke of Northumberland tried to block the Catholic Mary Tudor from beco

Religious conflict and the Church in England, c1529–c1570

the establishment of the Church of England, 1547–c1570

After Henry VIII's death in 1547, the regents who governed in the name of the young Edward VI used their power to push E

Religious conflict and the Church in England, c1529–c1570

The failure of international peace and the origins of the Second World War, 1917–1941

Four large empires fell apart during and after the First World War. Their collapse released dozens of competing national

International Relations and Global Conflict, c1890–1941

The failure of international peace and the origins of the Second World War, 1917–1941

After the First World War, three leaders met in Paris to decide the peace terms. Their conflicting goals shaped a series

International Relations and Global Conflict, c1890–1941

The failure of international peace and the origins of the Second World War, 1917–1941

The 1919 peace settlement faced immediate challenges. America withdrew from world affairs, and France, Britain, and Germ

International Relations and Global Conflict, c1890–1941

The failure of international peace and the origins of the Second World War, 1917–1941

By 1923, the post-war world was deeply unstable. The USA had withdrawn from European affairs, Russia was isolated, borde

International Relations and Global Conflict, c1890–1941

The failure of international peace and the origins of the Second World War, 1917–1941

In the mid-1920s, European powers signed a series of agreements to stabilise the post-war world. These deals created a b

International Relations and Global Conflict, c1890–1941

The failure of international peace and the origins of the Second World War, 1917–1941

The Great Depression wrecked the global economy after 1929. Countries tried to fix the crisis together at two major conf

International Relations and Global Conflict, c1890–1941

The failure of international peace and the origins of the Second World War, 1917–1941

By the 1930s, Italy, Japan and Germany all wanted to expand their territory and influence. Their growing ambitions shift

International Relations and Global Conflict, c1890–1941

The failure of international peace and the origins of the Second World War, 1917–1941

The League of Nations was supposed to stop countries attacking each other. Its failure to punish Japan in 1931 and Italy

International Relations and Global Conflict, c1890–1941

The failure of international peace and the origins of the Second World War, 1917–1941

After the First World War, the peacemakers of 1919 tried to build a stable international order through treaties and coll

International Relations and Global Conflict, c1890–1941

The Fall of the House of Lancaster, 1450–1471

By 1450, England faced a crisis on four fronts. Henry VI ruled ineffectively, powerful nobles competed for control, ordi

The Wars of the Roses, 1450–1499

The Fall of the House of Lancaster, 1450–1471

Richard of York used Henry VI's weak rule to build his own power base. His growing influence destabilised English politi

The Wars of the Roses, 1450–1499

The Fall of the House of Lancaster, 1450–1471

In May 1455, Yorkist and Lancastrian nobles fought the first armed battle of the Wars of the Roses at St Albans. York's

The Wars of the Roses, 1450–1499

The Fall of the House of Lancaster, 1450–1471

After the first Battle of St Albans in 1455, England entered a fragile truce. Queen Margaret of Anjou drove Lancastrian

The Wars of the Roses, 1450–1499

The Fall of the House of Lancaster, 1450–1471

After a Lancastrian show of force at Ludford Bridge in 1459, the Yorkist leaders fled abroad. They returned in 1460, def

The Wars of the Roses, 1450–1499

The Fall of the House of Lancaster, 1450–1471

When Henry VI suffered a complete mental collapse in 1453, Richard of York stepped in to govern England as Lord Protecto

The Wars of the Roses, 1450–1499

The Fall of the House of Lancaster, 1450–1471

In late 1460 and early 1461, the Lancastrians struck back hard. They killed Richard of York at Wakefield, won a second b

The Wars of the Roses, 1450–1499

The Fall of the House of Lancaster, 1450–1471

In early 1461, Edward of York seized the English throne and then crushed the Lancastrian army at the Battle of Towton. H

The Wars of the Roses, 1450–1499

The Fall of the House of Lancaster, 1450–1471

After winning the crown in 1461, Edward IV ruled England directly. His secret marriage to Elizabeth Woodville, a widow w

The Wars of the Roses, 1450–1499

The Fall of the House of Lancaster, 1450–1471

After Edward IV took the throne, the Earl of Warwick switched sides and tried to put Henry VI back in power. He allied w

The Wars of the Roses, 1450–1499

The Fall of the House of Lancaster, 1450–1471

Two battles in 1471 ended the Lancastrian dynasty's fight for the throne. Yorkist victories at Barnet and Tewkesbury kil

The Wars of the Roses, 1450–1499

The Fall of the House of Lancaster, 1450–1471

Two decades of civil war killed or ruined many noble families and disrupted England's trade. By 1471, English society lo

The Wars of the Roses, 1450–1499

The Fall of the House of Lancaster, 1450–1471

Between 1450 and 1471, the Lancastrian dynasty — the royal house descended from John of Gaunt that had held the English

The Wars of the Roses, 1450–1499

The fall of the House of York, 1471–1499

After winning back his throne in 1471, Edward IV worked to strengthen royal power. He introduced new ways of managing mo

The Wars of the Roses, 1450–1499

The fall of the House of York, 1471–1499

After Edward IV married Elizabeth Woodville in 1464, her large family rapidly gained titles, land, and royal favour. Old

The Wars of the Roses, 1450–1499

The fall of the House of York, 1471–1499

After 1471, Edward IV's decade of relative peace allowed English trade to grow and society to shift. Some things changed

The Wars of the Roses, 1450–1499

The fall of the House of York, 1471–1499

Edward IV died unexpectedly in April 1483, aged just 40. He left a 12-year-old son as heir, and powerful nobles immediat

The Wars of the Roses, 1450–1499

The fall of the House of York, 1471–1499

In 1483, Richard of Gloucester seized the throne from his young nephew Edward V. He imprisoned Edward and his brother in

The Wars of the Roses, 1450–1499

The fall of the House of York, 1471–1499

After Richard III seized the throne in 1483, powerful nobles turned against him. Their quarrels and betrayals gave Henry

The Wars of the Roses, 1450–1499

The fall of the House of York, 1471–1499

By 1484, Richard III faced a dynastic crisis. His only son died, and his wife was gravely ill, leaving him with no clear

The Wars of the Roses, 1450–1499

The fall of the House of York, 1471–1499

Henry Tudor defeated and killed Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth in 1485. Henry then married Elizabeth of York to u

The Wars of the Roses, 1450–1499

The fall of the House of York, 1471–1499

Edward IV's return to power in 1471 appeared to secure Yorkist rule, yet the dynasty collapsed within a generation — und

The Wars of the Roses, 1450–1499

The High Water Mark of the British Empire, c1857–1914

Between 1857 and 1890, Britain seized large territories across Africa. Controlling the Suez Canal gave Britain a vital s

The British Empire, c1857–1967

The High Water Mark of the British Empire, c1857–1914

Britain ran its empire through a mix of direct rule and behind-the-scenes influence. India was the centrepiece, Africa b

The British Empire, c1857–1967

The High Water Mark of the British Empire, c1857–1914

Britain built its empire partly through trade. Private companies received royal charters — official licences — giving th

The British Empire, c1857–1967

The High Water Mark of the British Empire, c1857–1914

Four groups of people — explorers, missionaries, traders, and colonial administrators — each played a distinct role in b

The British Empire, c1857–1967

The High Water Mark of the British Empire, c1857–1914

British people disagreed sharply about whether empire was good or bad. These disagreements split the two main political

The British Empire, c1857–1967

The High Water Mark of the British Empire, c1857–1914

Britain's empire brought it into repeated conflict with the peoples it tried to rule. The Indian Mutiny of 1857, Boer re

The British Empire, c1857–1967

The High Water Mark of the British Empire, c1857–1914

Between roughly 1890 and 1914, Britain tightened its grip on existing African territories and seized new ones. By 1914,

The British Empire, c1857–1967

The High Water Mark of the British Empire, c1857–1914

Britain governed its empire through different systems in different places. India and Egypt show how policy, local contro

The British Empire, c1857–1967

The High Water Mark of the British Empire, c1857–1914

Between 1857 and 1914, Britain used its empire to dominate global trade. British merchants sold manufactured goods abroa

The British Empire, c1857–1967

The High Water Mark of the British Empire, c1857–1914

Joseph Chamberlain and Cecil Rhodes were two of the most powerful forces behind British imperial expansion. Chamberlain

The British Empire, c1857–1967

The High Water Mark of the British Empire, c1857–1914

British people debated whether empire was good or bad. Supporters celebrated it through books, music halls, and sport. C

The British Empire, c1857–1967

The High Water Mark of the British Empire, c1857–1914

Britain faced violent resistance from local peoples across its empire. The Sudan campaign and the Boer War were two majo

The British Empire, c1857–1967

The High Water Mark of the British Empire, c1857–1914

Between 1857 and 1914, Britain controlled the largest empire in history, governing roughly a quarter of the world's land

The British Empire, c1857–1967

The impact of industrialisation: Britain, c1783–1832

In 1783, Britain had a parliament and two main political parties. But only a tiny fraction of men could vote, and the sy

Industrialisation and the people: Britain, c1783–1885

The impact of industrialisation: Britain, c1783–1832

Pitt the Younger became Prime Minister in 1783 and modernised how Britain managed its money, government and trade. His s

Industrialisation and the people: Britain, c1783–1885

The impact of industrialisation: Britain, c1783–1832

Between 1783 and 1832, Britain shifted from a farming economy to a factory-based one. New machines, steam power, and boo

Industrialisation and the people: Britain, c1783–1885

The impact of industrialisation: Britain, c1783–1832

Industrialisation created sharply divided social groups in Britain. Factory owners grew wealthy, workers faced harsh con

Industrialisation and the people: Britain, c1783–1885

The impact of industrialisation: Britain, c1783–1832

Between 1783 and 1832, the British government faced serious threats to its authority. Events abroad and growing unrest a

Industrialisation and the people: Britain, c1783–1885

The impact of industrialisation: Britain, c1783–1832

The wars against Napoleonic France (1793–1815) placed enormous strain on the British government. By 1812, rising prices,

Industrialisation and the people: Britain, c1783–1885

The impact of industrialisation: Britain, c1783–1832

Lord Liverpool led the government from 1812 to 1827. He used laws like the Corn Laws to protect landowners and cracked d

Industrialisation and the people: Britain, c1783–1885

The impact of industrialisation: Britain, c1783–1832

After Lord Liverpool resigned in 1827, three short-lived Prime Ministers passed significant reforms. These reforms gave

Industrialisation and the people: Britain, c1783–1885

The impact of industrialisation: Britain, c1783–1832

Between 1812 and 1832, Britain's factories kept expanding, farming changed dramatically, and governments began shifting

Industrialisation and the people: Britain, c1783–1885

The impact of industrialisation: Britain, c1783–1832

Industrialisation changed how ordinary people lived and worked, often for the worse. Low wages, dangerous factories, and

Industrialisation and the people: Britain, c1783–1885

The impact of industrialisation: Britain, c1783–1832

Between roughly 1783 and 1832, several movements pushed Britain to change. They challenged factory conditions, slavery,

Industrialisation and the people: Britain, c1783–1885

The impact of industrialisation: Britain, c1783–1832

The Whigs won the 1830 election and passed the Great Reform Act in 1832. This law changed who could vote and which towns

Industrialisation and the people: Britain, c1783–1885

The impact of industrialisation: Britain, c1783–1832

Between 1783 and 1832, Britain was transformed by industrialisation — the rapid shift from a farming-based economy to on

Industrialisation and the people: Britain, c1783–1885

The impact of Nazism, war and division, 1929–1991

Germany's democratic government fell apart after 1929. Hitler and President Hindenburg together destroyed it and replace

The quest for political stability: Germany, 1871–1991

The impact of Nazism, war and division, 1929–1991

Nazi Germany was a dictatorship built on a radical racist ideology. Hitler used fear, propaganda, and a chaotic governin

The quest for political stability: Germany, 1871–1991

The impact of Nazism, war and division, 1929–1991

After World War Two, the four Allied powers — the USA, USSR, Britain, and France — divided Germany into occupation zones

The quest for political stability: Germany, 1871–1991

The impact of Nazism, war and division, 1929–1991

Germany's economy collapsed during the Great Depression of the early 1930s. The Nazis then rebuilt it through state cont

The quest for political stability: Germany, 1871–1991

The impact of Nazism, war and division, 1929–1991

The Nazis tried to reshape German society around race, loyalty, and conformity. Their policies excluded and persecuted m

The quest for political stability: Germany, 1871–1991

The impact of Nazism, war and division, 1929–1991

By 1949, Germany lay physically ruined, politically divided between Allied occupiers, and socially traumatised by twelve

The quest for political stability: Germany, 1871–1991

The impact of Nazism, war and division, 1929–1991

After 1949, West Germany built a new democratic system with deliberate safeguards against dictatorship. Konrad Adenauer

The quest for political stability: Germany, 1871–1991

The impact of Nazism, war and division, 1929–1991

After Adenauer left office in 1963, West Germany was governed by a series of chancellors from different parties. They al

The quest for political stability: Germany, 1871–1991

The impact of Nazism, war and division, 1929–1991

From the 1960s onwards, groups outside West Germany's parliament challenged the government through street protests, poli

The quest for political stability: Germany, 1871–1991

The impact of Nazism, war and division, 1929–1991

West Germany rebuilt its shattered economy after 1945 and grew into one of the world's richest nations. Historians call

The quest for political stability: Germany, 1871–1991

The impact of Nazism, war and division, 1929–1991

West Germany rebuilt its society after 1949, but the Nazi past left deep marks. Living standards rose sharply, yet tensi

The quest for political stability: Germany, 1871–1991

The impact of Nazism, war and division, 1929–1991

In 1990, Chancellor Helmut Kohl led the reunification of East and West Germany into a single state. The new Germany had

The quest for political stability: Germany, 1871–1991

The impact of Nazism, war and division, 1929–1991

From the collapse of Weimar democracy — Germany's fragile parliamentary system established after World War One — through

The quest for political stability: Germany, 1871–1991

the origins of the American Civil War, c1845–1861

The United States split power between a central federal government and individual state governments. The Constitution se

America: A Nation Divided, c1845–1877

the origins of the American Civil War, c1845–1861

By the mid-1800s, the Northern states had built a society around factories, cities, and paid workers. These features mad

America: A Nation Divided, c1845–1877

the origins of the American Civil War, c1845–1861

The Southern states built their society around slavery and large farming estates called plantations. This shaped everyth

America: A Nation Divided, c1845–1877

the origins of the American Civil War, c1845–1861

Long before the Civil War, earlier crises over slavery and states' rights left deep scars on American politics. These un

America: A Nation Divided, c1845–1877

the origins of the American Civil War, c1845–1861

Many Americans believed their nation was destined to stretch across the entire continent. Winning land from Mexico in 18

America: A Nation Divided, c1845–1877

the origins of the American Civil War, c1845–1861

Between 1846 and 1850, American politicians tried to stop arguments over slavery tearing the country apart. They negotia

America: A Nation Divided, c1845–1877

the origins of the American Civil War, c1845–1861

Abolitionism — the demand to end slavery — grew steadily in the North before the Civil War. Politicians, activists, writ

America: A Nation Divided, c1845–1877

the origins of the American Civil War, c1845–1861

Southern politicians, writers, and newspapers actively fought back against the abolitionist movement. They defended slav

America: A Nation Divided, c1845–1877

the origins of the American Civil War, c1845–1861

After the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 opened new territories to a vote on slavery, pro-slavery and anti-slavery settlers

America: A Nation Divided, c1845–1877

the origins of the American Civil War, c1845–1861

The Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 outraged many Northerners and destroyed the old party system. Anti-slavery politicians f

America: A Nation Divided, c1845–1877

the origins of the American Civil War, c1845–1861

Between 1857 and 1860, a series of events pushed North and South further apart. Each event made compromise feel less pos

America: A Nation Divided, c1845–1877

the origins of the American Civil War, c1845–1861

Abraham Lincoln's election in 1860 convinced Southern states that the federal government threatened slavery. They broke

America: A Nation Divided, c1845–1877

the origins of the American Civil War, c1845–1861

By the mid-nineteenth century, the United States was being pulled apart by deepening divisions between the industrialisi

America: A Nation Divided, c1845–1877

the origins of the American Revolution, 1760–1776

By 1760, Britain ruled thirteen colonies in North America but treated them mainly as a source of wealth. A long rivalry

The Birth of the USA, 1760–1801

the origins of the American Revolution, 1760–1776

By 1760, Britain ruled thirteen separate colonies along North America's eastern coast. Each colony had its own economy,

The Birth of the USA, 1760–1801

the origins of the American Revolution, 1760–1776

Britain and the colonies jointly won the French and Indian War in 1763. Victory removed a shared enemy but created new t

The Birth of the USA, 1760–1801

the origins of the American Revolution, 1760–1776

After Britain defeated France in 1763, colonists expected to settle the vast new western lands. Britain blocked this, an

The Birth of the USA, 1760–1801

the origins of the American Revolution, 1760–1776

After 1763, Britain passed a series of laws to control and tax the American colonies. Colonists rejected these laws as a

The Birth of the USA, 1760–1801

the origins of the American Revolution, 1760–1776

Colonial elites — wealthy lawyers, merchants, and landowners — led the resistance to British taxation. They argued that

The Birth of the USA, 1760–1801

the origins of the American Revolution, 1760–1776

Ordinary colonists — merchants, artisans, and crowds on the street — organised boycotts and protests to resist British t

The Birth of the USA, 1760–1801

the origins of the American Revolution, 1760–1776

In 1773, colonists dumped British tea into Boston Harbour to protest unfair taxation. Britain's harsh response united th

The Birth of the USA, 1760–1801

the origins of the American Revolution, 1760–1776

By 1774, colonial opposition to Britain moved from protest to organised political action. Delegates from across the colo

The Birth of the USA, 1760–1801

the origins of the American Revolution, 1760–1776

Revolutionary ideas gave colonists a shared language for why breaking from Britain was justified. Thomas Paine, Samuel A

The Birth of the USA, 1760–1801

the origins of the American Revolution, 1760–1776

By 1775, Britain tried to crush colonial resistance through new laws and military force. Colonists fought back with arme

The Birth of the USA, 1760–1801

the origins of the American Revolution, 1760–1776

In July 1776, colonial leaders formally declared independence from Britain in a written document. It drew on Enlightenme

The Birth of the USA, 1760–1801

the origins of the American Revolution, 1760–1776

By 1760, Britain governed thirteen colonies along the eastern seaboard of North America, but the relationship between th

The Birth of the USA, 1760–1801

The origins of the English Civil War, 1625–1642

James I left Charles I a kingdom already fractured by religious quarrels, clashes with Parliament over power and money,

The English Revolution, 1625–1660

The origins of the English Civil War, 1625–1642

Charles I believed God gave him the right to rule without challenge. His personality, his Catholic queen, and his chosen

The English Revolution, 1625–1660

The origins of the English Civil War, 1625–1642

Between 1625 and 1629, Charles I faced fierce opposition on three fronts: his money-raising methods, his religious direc

The English Revolution, 1625–1660

The origins of the English Civil War, 1625–1642

By 1628, MPs had grown bold enough to demand that Charles I sign a document limiting his powers. When he ignored it anyw

The English Revolution, 1625–1660

The origins of the English Civil War, 1625–1642

Between 1629 and 1640, Charles I ruled England without calling Parliament. He raised money through controversial legal m

The English Revolution, 1625–1660

The origins of the English Civil War, 1625–1642

Archbishop Laud pushed a style of worship that looked dangerously Catholic to many Protestants. His reforms in England a

The English Revolution, 1625–1660

The origins of the English Civil War, 1625–1642

Thomas Wentworth ran Ireland and parts of England with aggressive, centralised control on Charles I's behalf. His method

The English Revolution, 1625–1660

The origins of the English Civil War, 1625–1642

Religious radicalism spread across Britain in the late 1630s. Scottish resistance to Charles I's religious policies trig

The English Revolution, 1625–1660

The origins of the English Civil War, 1625–1642

By 1640, military defeat by Scotland forced Charles I to recall Parliament after eleven years of ruling alone. Parliamen

The English Revolution, 1625–1660

The origins of the English Civil War, 1625–1642

John Pym led the parliamentary opposition to Charles I and pushed it in an increasingly radical direction. He used publi

The English Revolution, 1625–1660

The origins of the English Civil War, 1625–1642

When the Long Parliament met in 1640, Charles I and MPs tried to reach a deal — but talks broke down completely. Parliam

The English Revolution, 1625–1660

The origins of the English Civil War, 1625–1642

By late 1641, a series of crises pushed England from political argument into armed conflict. Events in Ireland, Charles'

The English Revolution, 1625–1660

The origins of the English Civil War, 1625–1642

England did not stumble into civil war by accident — by 1642, decades of deepening conflict over religion, money, and po

The English Revolution, 1625–1660

the origins of the Reformation, c1500–1531

Around 1500, the Catholic Church held enormous power over governments, laws, and everyday life across Europe. It was not

The Reformation in Europe, c1500–1564

the origins of the Reformation, c1500–1531

The Catholic Church taught that priests and specific rituals controlled access to salvation — the promise of heaven afte

The Reformation in Europe, c1500–1564

the origins of the Reformation, c1500–1531

By 1500, educated Europeans and ordinary people were openly criticising the Catholic Church for corruption and greed. Sc

The Reformation in Europe, c1500–1564

the origins of the Reformation, c1500–1531

The Church raised money through taxes and the sale of indulgences — payments that promised to reduce a soul's time in pu

The Reformation in Europe, c1500–1564

the origins of the Reformation, c1500–1531

The Holy Roman Empire was a large, loosely governed collection of German territories. Power was shared between the emper

The Reformation in Europe, c1500–1564

the origins of the Reformation, c1500–1531

Martin Luther was a German monk whose upbringing and religious crisis drove him to challenge the Catholic Church. In 151

The Reformation in Europe, c1500–1564

the origins of the Reformation, c1500–1531

Luther developed his religious ideas through public debates and written pamphlets. The printing press spread those ideas

The Reformation in Europe, c1500–1564

the origins of the Reformation, c1500–1531

In 1521, the Church expelled Luther and the Emperor ordered him to recant. A powerful German prince named Frederick the

The Reformation in Europe, c1500–1564

the origins of the Reformation, c1500–1531

Some reformers pushed far beyond Luther's ideas, demanding immediate and dramatic change. Luther rejected these radicals

The Reformation in Europe, c1500–1564

the origins of the Reformation, c1500–1531

Luther, Melanchthon, and Zwingli each built a distinct set of Protestant beliefs to replace Catholic teaching. Their ide

The Reformation in Europe, c1500–1564

the origins of the Reformation, c1500–1531

Between 1522 and 1525, two violent uprisings shook the Holy Roman Empire. Luther's ideas inspired both revolts, but he p

The Reformation in Europe, c1500–1564

the origins of the Reformation, c1500–1531

Ulrich Zwingli led a separate Reformation in Switzerland, independent of Luther. Religious divisions there sparked two w

The Reformation in Europe, c1500–1564

the origins of the Reformation, c1500–1531

By 1500, the Catholic Church dominated every aspect of life in Europe — spiritually, politically, and financially — but

The Reformation in Europe, c1500–1564

The Reign of Henry II, 1154–1189

Henry II became king in 1154 after years of civil war had left England unstable and weakened. He was energetic and ambit

Royal Authority and the Angevin Kings, 1154–1216

The Reign of Henry II, 1154–1189

Henry II rebuilt the king's power after years of civil war. He did this by bringing barons under control, recovering roy

Royal Authority and the Angevin Kings, 1154–1216

The Reign of Henry II, 1154–1189

The medieval Church was far more than a religious institution. It ran its own law courts, employed royal administrators,

Royal Authority and the Angevin Kings, 1154–1216

The Reign of Henry II, 1154–1189

Henry II ruled a vast empire stretching from Ireland to southern France. Managing these territories — and competing with

Royal Authority and the Angevin Kings, 1154–1216

The Reign of Henry II, 1154–1189

Henry II tried to bring the Church under royal control. His former friend Thomas Becket, the Archbishop of Canterbury, r

Royal Authority and the Angevin Kings, 1154–1216

The Reign of Henry II, 1154–1189

Henry II extended his power into Ireland through two military invasions. He then worked to bring Irish kings and lords u

Royal Authority and the Angevin Kings, 1154–1216

The Reign of Henry II, 1154–1189

The Great Rebellion of 1173–74 was a coordinated uprising against Henry II. His own sons, his wife Eleanor, and the Fren

Royal Authority and the Angevin Kings, 1154–1216

The Reign of Henry II, 1154–1189

In 1173–74, Henry II's sons, rebellious barons, and the King of Scotland all attacked him at once. Henry survived by def

Royal Authority and the Angevin Kings, 1154–1216

The Reign of Henry II, 1154–1189

After crushing the Great Rebellion of 1173–74, Henry II worked to rebuild his power across four areas: his fractured fam

Royal Authority and the Angevin Kings, 1154–1216

The Reign of Henry II, 1154–1189

After the murder of Archbishop Becket in 1170, Henry II had to repair his relationship with the Pope and the Church. He

Royal Authority and the Angevin Kings, 1154–1216

The Reign of Henry II, 1154–1189

By 1189, Henry II's reign had changed how English towns, trade, and ordinary society functioned. Towns grew, commerce ex

Royal Authority and the Angevin Kings, 1154–1216

The Reign of Henry II, 1154–1189

Henry II spent his final years fighting on two fronts. His own sons, backed by the French king Philip II, rebelled again

Royal Authority and the Angevin Kings, 1154–1216

The Reign of Henry II, 1154–1189

When Henry II came to the throne in 1154, England was recovering from decades of civil war, and his central challenge wa

Royal Authority and the Angevin Kings, 1154–1216

The revival of Islam and the later Crusades, 1149–1204

From 1149, Muslim rulers began uniting the fragmented Islamic world against the Crusader states. Nureddin led this reviv

The Age of the Crusades, c1071–1204

The revival of Islam and the later Crusades, 1149–1204

Outremer was the collection of Christian-ruled states in the Near East. After 1149, these states faced serious political

The Age of the Crusades, c1071–1204

The revival of Islam and the later Crusades, 1149–1204

Outremer — the Christian-ruled territories in the Near East — tore itself apart through bitter power struggles. Baldwin

The Age of the Crusades, c1071–1204

The revival of Islam and the later Crusades, 1149–1204

Saladin built a powerful Muslim empire by combining religious leadership, political skill, and military conquest. His vi

The Age of the Crusades, c1071–1204

The revival of Islam and the later Crusades, 1149–1204

When Saladin took Jerusalem in 1187, the Christian states in the Holy Land faced a catastrophic crisis. His victory shat

The Age of the Crusades, c1071–1204

The revival of Islam and the later Crusades, 1149–1204

After Saladin captured Jerusalem in 1187, Europe's leaders began organising a new Crusade. Each leader had different rea

The Age of the Crusades, c1071–1204

The revival of Islam and the later Crusades, 1149–1204

The Third Crusade (1189–1192) brought Europe's most powerful kings together to recapture Jerusalem. Their personal rival

The Age of the Crusades, c1071–1204

The revival of Islam and the later Crusades, 1149–1204

The Third Crusade (1189–1192) challenged Saladin militarily but left him in control of Jerusalem. Saladin ended the Crus

The Age of the Crusades, c1071–1204

The revival of Islam and the later Crusades, 1149–1204

Three forces shaped the Fourth Crusade before it even began. Pope Innocent III drove it with religious ambition. Venice

The Age of the Crusades, c1071–1204

The revival of Islam and the later Crusades, 1149–1204

The Fourth Crusade set out to fight Muslims but never reached Muslim territory. Debt to Venice and political complicatio

The Age of the Crusades, c1071–1204

The revival of Islam and the later Crusades, 1149–1204

By 1204, the Crusades had reshaped three worlds differently. The Muslim Near East grew stronger, the Byzantine Empire la

The Age of the Crusades, c1071–1204

The revival of Islam and the later Crusades, 1149–1204

After 1149, the Crusader states — the Christian territories in the Near East collectively known as Outremer — faced a dr

The Age of the Crusades, c1071–1204

the rise of Napoleon and his impact on France and Europe, 1795–1815

After the violent Terror ended in 1794, France swung sharply against radical Jacobin rule. Royalists and moderates took

France in Revolution, 1774–1815

the rise of Napoleon and his impact on France and Europe, 1795–1815

After the Terror, France set up a new government called the Directory in 1795. Five directors shared executive power, bu

France in Revolution, 1774–1815

the rise of Napoleon and his impact on France and Europe, 1795–1815

Napoleon Bonaparte built his reputation through brilliant military campaigns in Italy and Egypt in the late 1790s. His b

France in Revolution, 1774–1815

the rise of Napoleon and his impact on France and Europe, 1795–1815

In November 1799, Napoleon used the army to overthrow France's weak ruling government, the Directory. He then set up a n

France in Revolution, 1774–1815

the rise of Napoleon and his impact on France and Europe, 1795–1815

Napoleon gradually tightened his grip on France after 1799. He moved from First Consul to Emperor by 1804, rewriting the

France in Revolution, 1774–1815

the rise of Napoleon and his impact on France and Europe, 1795–1815

Napoleon reshaped French society through new rules on class, education, religion, and information. He kept some revoluti

France in Revolution, 1774–1815

the rise of Napoleon and his impact on France and Europe, 1795–1815

Napoleon rewrote France's laws into a single clear system and placed government officials called prefects in every regio

France in Revolution, 1774–1815

the rise of Napoleon and his impact on France and Europe, 1795–1815

Napoleon overhauled France's finances and tried to control European trade. War and his trade blockade against Britain cr

France in Revolution, 1774–1815

the rise of Napoleon and his impact on France and Europe, 1795–1815

Napoleon built a vast European empire through military conquest. His armies dominated Europe by 1808 for specific reason

France in Revolution, 1774–1815

the rise of Napoleon and his impact on France and Europe, 1795–1815

Napoleon ruled a vast European empire by installing loyal rulers, exporting French laws, and using economic policies to

France in Revolution, 1774–1815

the rise of Napoleon and his impact on France and Europe, 1795–1815

Napoleon's Empire faced a series of military and economic crises that steadily drained French power. Each challenge — fr

France in Revolution, 1774–1815

the rise of Napoleon and his impact on France and Europe, 1795–1815

Napoleon's empire collapsed twice between 1814 and 1815. Allied powers then reshaped Europe at the Congress of Vienna, l

France in Revolution, 1774–1815

the rise of Napoleon and his impact on France and Europe, 1795–1815

After the violence of the Terror, France struggled to find stable government — first under the Directory (a five-man exe

France in Revolution, 1774–1815

The Russian Revolution and the Rise of Stalin, 1917–1929

By early 1917, Russia was close to collapse. Tsar Nicholas II had lost control of the war, the economy, and his own peop

Revolution and dictatorship: Russia, 1917–1953

The Russian Revolution and the Rise of Stalin, 1917–1929

In February 1917, mass protests and army mutinies forced Tsar Nicholas II from power. Two rival bodies then tried to gov

Revolution and dictatorship: Russia, 1917–1953

The Russian Revolution and the Rise of Stalin, 1917–1929

Between February and October 1917, Lenin returned to Russia and pushed the Bolsheviks toward seizing power. A series of

Revolution and dictatorship: Russia, 1917–1953

The Russian Revolution and the Rise of Stalin, 1917–1929

In October 1917, the Bolsheviks — a radical socialist party led by Lenin — seized power from Russia's Provisional Govern

Revolution and dictatorship: Russia, 1917–1953

The Russian Revolution and the Rise of Stalin, 1917–1929

After seizing power in October 1917, the Bolsheviks took three key steps to lock in their control. They banned rival par

Revolution and dictatorship: Russia, 1917–1953

The Russian Revolution and the Rise of Stalin, 1917–1929

From 1918 to 1921, the Bolsheviks fought a brutal civil war to keep power. Trotsky built the Red Army, and the Reds defe

Revolution and dictatorship: Russia, 1917–1953

The Russian Revolution and the Rise of Stalin, 1917–1929

Between 1918 and 1921, the Bolsheviks used harsh economic controls to survive the Civil War. When those controls caused

Revolution and dictatorship: Russia, 1917–1953

The Russian Revolution and the Rise of Stalin, 1917–1929

Western countries feared and distrusted Bolshevik Russia. Between 1918 and 1924, Lenin's government lurched between open

Revolution and dictatorship: Russia, 1917–1953

The Russian Revolution and the Rise of Stalin, 1917–1929

When Lenin died in 1924, no single leader automatically replaced him. Seven senior Bolsheviks competed for control, each

Revolution and dictatorship: Russia, 1917–1953

The Russian Revolution and the Rise of Stalin, 1917–1929

After Lenin died, senior Bolsheviks clashed over two big questions: how fast to industrialise Russia, and whether to spr

Revolution and dictatorship: Russia, 1917–1953

The Russian Revolution and the Rise of Stalin, 1917–1929

Around 1928–1929, Stalin abandoned the mixed economy and launched a crash programme to industrialise Russia fast. He als

Revolution and dictatorship: Russia, 1917–1953

The Russian Revolution and the Rise of Stalin, 1917–1929

By the late 1920s, Stalin used propaganda to build a personal cult around himself. He also shaped Soviet foreign policy

Revolution and dictatorship: Russia, 1917–1953

The Russian Revolution and the Rise of Stalin, 1917–1929

Between 1917 and 1929, Russia was transformed from a collapsing Tsarist empire into a one-party Communist state — a syst

Revolution and dictatorship: Russia, 1917–1953

The Soviet Union, 1917–1964

After 1917, Lenin and then Stalin each took control of Russia and used distinct political beliefs to reshape the country

Tsarist and Communist Russia, 1855–1964

The Soviet Union, 1917–1964

After seizing power in 1917, the Bolsheviks fought to keep control of Russia. Over the following decades, Stalin turned

Tsarist and Communist Russia, 1855–1964

The Soviet Union, 1917–1964

Lenin and Stalin each used radical economic policies to reshape Russia. Lenin issued emergency decrees, while Stalin for

Tsarist and Communist Russia, 1855–1964

The Soviet Union, 1917–1964

Lenin and Stalin deliberately reshaped Soviet society — changing the roles of women, young people, and religious believe

Tsarist and Communist Russia, 1855–1964

The Soviet Union, 1917–1964

Lenin and Stalin crushed opposition inside and outside the Communist Party. They used organised violence — including mas

Tsarist and Communist Russia, 1855–1964

The Soviet Union, 1917–1964

By 1941, Stalin had built a brutal dictatorship that controlled politics, the economy and everyday life. The Soviet Unio

Tsarist and Communist Russia, 1855–1964

The Soviet Union, 1917–1964

The Second World War transformed Soviet politics, the economy and daily life. Stalin used the crisis to tighten his grip

Tsarist and Communist Russia, 1855–1964

The Soviet Union, 1917–1964

After World War Two, Stalin tightened his grip on the Soviet Union through renewed terror and a carefully constructed im

Tsarist and Communist Russia, 1855–1964

The Soviet Union, 1917–1964

After Stalin died in 1953, Nikita Khrushchev outmanoeuvred his rivals to take control of the Soviet Union. He then tried

Tsarist and Communist Russia, 1855–1964

The Soviet Union, 1917–1964

After Stalin died in 1953, Khrushchev changed how Soviet industry, farming and daily life were organised. He tried to ma

Tsarist and Communist Russia, 1855–1964

The Soviet Union, 1917–1964

Different groups challenged Khrushchev's rule from inside and outside the Communist Party. Their combined pressure event

Tsarist and Communist Russia, 1855–1964

The Soviet Union, 1917–1964

By 1964, the Soviet Union had changed dramatically since Stalin's death. Khrushchev's reforms had loosened political ter

Tsarist and Communist Russia, 1855–1964

The Soviet Union, 1917–1964

Following the revolutions of 1917, Russia was transformed into the Soviet Union — a one-party communist state — first un

Tsarist and Communist Russia, 1855–1964

The Sun King, 1643–1685

When Louis XIV became king in 1643, he was only four years old. France had been shaped by two powerful men before him —

The Sun King: Louis XIV, France and Europe, 1643–1715

The Sun King, 1643–1685

When Louis XIV became king aged four, his mother Anne and her chief minister Mazarin ran France. Powerful nobles and law

The Sun King: Louis XIV, France and Europe, 1643–1715

The Sun King, 1643–1685

Two major peace treaties — Westphalia (1648) and the Pyrenees (1659) — ended decades of war and left France stronger tha

The Sun King: Louis XIV, France and Europe, 1643–1715

The Sun King, 1643–1685

When Louis XIV took personal control of France in 1661, he inherited a kingdom weakened by decades of noble rebellion, f

The Sun King: Louis XIV, France and Europe, 1643–1715

The Sun King, 1643–1685

Louis XIV believed God gave him the right to rule France alone. He used this belief, his own forceful personality, and t

The Sun King: Louis XIV, France and Europe, 1643–1715

The Sun King, 1643–1685

Louis XIV used royal funding of art, literature and science to make France the cultural leader of Europe. His minister C

The Sun King: Louis XIV, France and Europe, 1643–1715

The Sun King, 1643–1685

Jean-Baptiste Colbert, Louis XIV's chief finance minister, rebuilt France's economy by cutting waste, boosting industry,

The Sun King: Louis XIV, France and Europe, 1643–1715

The Sun King, 1643–1685

Louis XIV fought to control religion in France on three fronts. He clashed with the Pope over church authority, suppress

The Sun King: Louis XIV, France and Europe, 1643–1715

The Sun King, 1643–1685

When Louis XIV took personal control in 1661, he wanted to expand French territory and dominate Europe. He rebuilt and p

The Sun King: Louis XIV, France and Europe, 1643–1715

The Sun King, 1643–1685

By the 1660s, Spain had lost its grip as Europe's dominant military power. Louis XIV exploited this weakness in the War

The Sun King: Louis XIV, France and Europe, 1643–1715

The Sun King, 1643–1685

Louis XIV went to war against the Dutch Republic in 1672, using a secret alliance with England's Charles II to isolate h

The Sun King: Louis XIV, France and Europe, 1643–1715

The Sun King, 1643–1685

Louis XIV used legal courts called Chambers of Reunion to claim neighbouring territories as historically French. He then

The Sun King: Louis XIV, France and Europe, 1643–1715

The Sun King, 1643–1685

From a troubled regency — the period when his mother Anne of Austria and chief minister Mazarin governed France on behal

The Sun King: Louis XIV, France and Europe, 1643–1715

the Weimar Republic, 1918–1933

Germany lost the First World War and its old imperial government collapsed in 1918. A new democratic system — the Weimar

Democracy and Nazism: Germany, 1918–1945

the Weimar Republic, 1918–1933

The 1919 Treaty of Versailles ended World War One by punishing Germany harshly. Germans had expected fair terms but rece

Democracy and Nazism: Germany, 1918–1945

the Weimar Republic, 1918–1933

After World War One, Germany faced crippling debt and economic chaos. Reparations payments, a French invasion of its ind

Democracy and Nazism: Germany, 1918–1945

the Weimar Republic, 1918–1933

Between 1919 and 1924, armed groups on both the far left and far right tried to destroy the Weimar Republic by force. Co

Democracy and Nazism: Germany, 1918–1945

the Weimar Republic, 1918–1933

Between 1924 and 1929, Germany's economy recovered significantly under Foreign Minister Gustav Stresemann. Two internati

Democracy and Nazism: Germany, 1918–1945

the Weimar Republic, 1918–1933

During the 1920s, the Weimar Republic expanded welfare support and produced a burst of bold, modern culture. Artists, fi

Democracy and Nazism: Germany, 1918–1945

the Weimar Republic, 1918–1933

During the mid-Weimar years, Germany held elections and ran a democracy, but many powerful groups — including army gener

Democracy and Nazism: Germany, 1918–1945

the Weimar Republic, 1918–1933

Gustav Stresemann rebuilt Germany's reputation abroad after the humiliation of the Versailles Treaty. He used diplomacy

Democracy and Nazism: Germany, 1918–1945

the Weimar Republic, 1918–1933

The Great Depression hit Germany hard from 1929, destroying jobs and savings. Mass unemployment drove millions of desper

Democracy and Nazism: Germany, 1918–1945

the Weimar Republic, 1918–1933

Both the Nazi Party and the Communist Party offered desperate Germans radical solutions to poverty and political chaos.

Democracy and Nazism: Germany, 1918–1945

the Weimar Republic, 1918–1933

A small group of conservative politicians secretly plotted and pressured President Hindenburg into appointing Hitler as

Democracy and Nazism: Germany, 1918–1945

the Weimar Republic, 1918–1933

Between February and March 1933, Hitler used a fire at Germany's parliament building as a pretext to crush opponents. He

Democracy and Nazism: Germany, 1918–1945

the Weimar Republic, 1918–1933

Germany's first democratic government — the Weimar Republic, named after the city where its constitution was drafted — w

Democracy and Nazism: Germany, 1918–1945

The World Wars and their legacies: Britain, 1914–1964

The First World War shattered the Liberal Party and reshaped British politics. Coalition government, internal splits, an

Challenge and transformation: Britain, c1851–1964

The World Wars and their legacies: Britain, 1914–1964

Between the two World Wars, British politics shifted dramatically. New voters reshaped elections, Labour replaced the Li

Challenge and transformation: Britain, c1851–1964

The World Wars and their legacies: Britain, 1914–1964

The First World War forced the government to take direct control of the economy. Afterwards, outdated industries, bad fi

Challenge and transformation: Britain, c1851–1964

The World Wars and their legacies: Britain, 1914–1964

Between 1914 and 1939, British society shifted dramatically. Women gained new freedoms, working-class communities faced

Challenge and transformation: Britain, c1851–1964

The World Wars and their legacies: Britain, 1914–1964

After the First World War, British governments passed laws to improve housing, schools, and welfare support for ordinary

Challenge and transformation: Britain, c1851–1964

The World Wars and their legacies: Britain, 1914–1964

Between 1916 and 1922, Ireland moved from armed rebellion against British rule to a negotiated split into two separate s

Challenge and transformation: Britain, c1851–1964

The World Wars and their legacies: Britain, 1914–1964

The Second World War transformed British politics. Churchill led Britain through the war, but voters then swept Labour i

Challenge and transformation: Britain, c1851–1964

The World Wars and their legacies: Britain, 1914–1964

The Conservatives won four elections in a row after 1951 and governed Britain for thirteen years. Labour spent those yea

Challenge and transformation: Britain, c1851–1964

The World Wars and their legacies: Britain, 1914–1964

Both World Wars forced Britain to redirect its entire economy towards fighting. After each war, Britain faced a mix of s

Challenge and transformation: Britain, c1851–1964

The World Wars and their legacies: Britain, 1914–1964

The Second World War and its aftermath transformed British society. Rationing gave way to a consumer boom, women and you

Challenge and transformation: Britain, c1851–1964

The World Wars and their legacies: Britain, 1914–1964

After the Second World War, the Labour government built a Welfare State — a system where the government provides healthc

Challenge and transformation: Britain, c1851–1964

The World Wars and their legacies: Britain, 1914–1964

After partition in 1921, Ireland remained deeply divided. Northern Ireland's Catholic minority faced discrimination, and

Challenge and transformation: Britain, c1851–1964

The World Wars and their legacies: Britain, 1914–1964

Both World Wars acted as powerful catalysts for change, reshaping British politics, society, and the economy in ways tha

Challenge and transformation: Britain, c1851–1964

to the brink of Nuclear War: international relations, c1945–1963

By 1945, the USA, Britain and the USSR had defeated Nazi Germany together — but deep disagreements about politics and po

The Cold War, c1945–1991

to the brink of Nuclear War: international relations, c1945–1963

Between 1945 and 1947, the USSR tightened its grip on Eastern Europe. The USA responded with warnings, speeches and a fo

The Cold War, c1945–1991

to the brink of Nuclear War: international relations, c1945–1963

After World War Two, the USA poured money into Western Europe to stop communism spreading. It also took a firm stance on

The Cold War, c1945–1991

to the brink of Nuclear War: international relations, c1945–1963

After World War Two, the USA, USSR, Britain and France each controlled a zone of Germany. Disagreements over Germany's f

The Cold War, c1945–1991

to the brink of Nuclear War: international relations, c1945–1963

After 1945, the USA worked to stop communism spreading across Asia. It rebuilt Japan, backed anti-communist governments,

The Cold War, c1945–1991

to the brink of Nuclear War: international relations, c1945–1963

The Korean War (1950–1953) was a hot conflict fought on the Korean peninsula. It drew in the USA, China, the USSR and th

The Cold War, c1945–1991

to the brink of Nuclear War: international relations, c1945–1963

In the early 1950s, fear of communism gripped the USA and spread abroad. America also used its power in the United Natio

The Cold War, c1945–1991

to the brink of Nuclear War: international relations, c1945–1963

By the mid-1950s, both superpowers had built rival military alliances across the globe. The USA also adopted aggressive

The Cold War, c1945–1991

to the brink of Nuclear War: international relations, c1945–1963

After Stalin died, Soviet leader Khrushchev tried to reduce Cold War tension through diplomacy. But when Hungary and Pol

The Cold War, c1945–1991

to the brink of Nuclear War: international relations, c1945–1963

Between 1957 and 1961, the USA and USSR competed furiously in weapons technology and space exploration. Each breakthroug

The Cold War, c1945–1991

to the brink of Nuclear War: international relations, c1945–1963

Vietnam split into a communist North under Ho Chi Minh and a US-backed South under Diem. Kennedy deepened American invol

The Cold War, c1945–1991

to the brink of Nuclear War: international relations, c1945–1963

In October 1962, the USA and USSR came closer to nuclear war than at any other point in the Cold War. The crisis began w

The Cold War, c1945–1991

to the brink of Nuclear War: international relations, c1945–1963

When World War Two ended in 1945, the wartime alliance between the USA and USSR rapidly collapsed as the two superpowers

The Cold War, c1945–1991

Victorian and Edwardian Britain, c1851–1914

In the mid-1800s, a tiny wealthy elite controlled British politics. Only a small fraction of men could vote, and two shi

Challenge and transformation: Britain, c1851–1964

Victorian and Edwardian Britain, c1851–1914

Gladstone and Disraeli dominated British politics from the 1860s to the 1880s. Both men expanded the right to vote, grad

Challenge and transformation: Britain, c1851–1964

Victorian and Edwardian Britain, c1851–1914

By the 1850s, Britain had become the world's dominant industrial and trading nation. From the 1870s, that dominance bega

Challenge and transformation: Britain, c1851–1964

Victorian and Edwardian Britain, c1851–1914

Victorian Britain was a deeply unequal society. Industrial wealth made some people very rich, but millions of working-cl

Challenge and transformation: Britain, c1851–1964

Victorian and Edwardian Britain, c1851–1914

Victorian Britain produced competing ideas about how to tackle poverty. Some people believed individuals should improve

Challenge and transformation: Britain, c1851–1964

Victorian and Edwardian Britain, c1851–1914

Irish tenant farmers campaigned against exploitative landlords in the 1870s–80s. Irish MPs then demanded a separate Iris

Challenge and transformation: Britain, c1851–1964

Victorian and Edwardian Britain, c1851–1914

Between 1886 and 1905, the Conservatives dominated British politics. Meanwhile, the Liberal Party fractured over key iss

Challenge and transformation: Britain, c1851–1964

Victorian and Edwardian Britain, c1851–1914

Between 1906 and 1914, the Liberal government adopted a new belief that the state should actively help the poor. This tr

Challenge and transformation: Britain, c1851–1964

Victorian and Edwardian Britain, c1851–1914

From the 1870s, Britain's economy slowed sharply as foreign rivals undercut its industries and farming. Politicians fier

Challenge and transformation: Britain, c1851–1964

Victorian and Edwardian Britain, c1851–1914

Between the 1880s and 1914, British society shifted dramatically. Workers organised into powerful unions, women fought f

Challenge and transformation: Britain, c1851–1964

Victorian and Edwardian Britain, c1851–1914

Between 1906 and 1914, the Liberal government passed laws to help the poor, the sick, and the elderly. These reforms use

Challenge and transformation: Britain, c1851–1964

Victorian and Edwardian Britain, c1851–1914

Irish nationalists campaigned for Ireland to govern itself through its own parliament. British politicians introduced th

Challenge and transformation: Britain, c1851–1964

Victorian and Edwardian Britain, c1851–1914

Between 1851 and 1914, Britain underwent profound political, economic, and social change — shifting from a system domina

Challenge and transformation: Britain, c1851–1964