The state of international relations by 1923: the position of the USA and Russia in world affairs; continuing border disputes; the occupation of the Ruhr and its consequences
By 1923, the post-war world was deeply unstable. The USA had withdrawn from European affairs, Russia was isolated, borders across Europe remained contested, and France's military occupation of Germany's industrial heartland pushed the continent toward fresh crisis.
Real World
In January 1923, France and Belgium sent 60,000 troops into Germany's Ruhr valley after Germany defaulted on timber and coal reparations deliveries; the German government responded with 'passive resistance,' printing money to pay striking workers and triggering hyperinflation that wiped out middle-class savings by November 1923.
Exam Focus
Link the Ruhr crisis directly to hyperinflation and political extremism in Germany — this chain demonstrates causation, which 'explain' mark schemes explicitly reward.
Essay Framework
Use PEEL to structure every paragraph. Tap each step for guidance and an example.
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