Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

Medieval Dominican friar and Doctor of the Church who synthesized Aristotelian philosophy with Christian theology. Aquin

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

Aquinas' fifth cosmological argument arguing that natural objects lacking intellect act toward definite ends, which must

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

The argument that the universe's apparent design, order, and complexity points to the existence of an intelligent design

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

The theory that apparent design in living organisms arises through natural selection and mutation rather than intelligen

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

The observation that physical constants and initial conditions are precisely calibrated for life. Gravity, electromagnet

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

Scottish empiricist philosopher who challenged causality's rational necessity, criticized religious arguments, and devel

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

David Hume's philosophical objections to the Design Argument, presented in his Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion. He

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

William Paley's 18th-century argument that if someone found a watch in a field, they would infer an intelligent maker; s

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

Richard Swinburne's approach to theistic arguments treating multiple lines of evidence (design, cosmology, religious exp

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

Richard Swinburne's modern refinement of the Design Argument, proposing that the existence of a universe exhibiting orde

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

Frederick Tennant's modern design argument based on aesthetic appreciation and the universe's apparent fine-tuning for h

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

Metaphysical distinction between contingent beings (whose existence depends on external causes) and necessary beings (wh

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

A famous 1948 BBC radio debate between Catholic philosopher Frederick Copleston and atheist philosopher Bertrand Russell

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

The argument that everything that exists requires a cause; the universe exists; therefore, the universe must have a caus

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

The logical problem that if every cause requires a prior cause, an infinite chain of causes stretches backward without b

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

A modern version of the Cosmological Argument developed by medieval Islamic philosophers and revived by contemporary apo

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

A contemporary cosmological argument developed by Islamic philosophers and refined by William Lane Craig, arguing that:

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

German philosopher who formulated the Principle of Sufficient Reason and developed a version of the Cosmological Argumen

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz's metaphysical principle stating that everything must have a reason or explanation for its exi

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

The philosophical principle, articulated by Leibniz, that everything must have an explanation or reason for its existenc

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

Bertrand Russell's famous objection that the Cosmological Argument commits the logical fallacy of special pleading by ex

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

Medieval theologian and philosopher (1033–1109) who formulated the Ontological Argument for God's existence. Anselm defi

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

Two versions of Anselm's ontological argument: Proslogion 2 argues that that-than-which-nothing-greater-can-be-conceived

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

French philosopher who developed a version of the Ontological Argument using geometric necessity. Descartes argued that

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

René Descartes's reformulation of Anselm's Ontological Argument using the analogy of geometric properties. Descartes arg

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

René Descartes' version of the ontological argument claiming that the idea of God (an infinite, perfect being) could not

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

A reductio ad absurdum objection to the Ontological Argument. Gaunilo, an 11th-century critic of Anselm, argued that by

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

Immanuel Kant's philosophical objection that 'existence is not a predicate.' Kant argued that existence is not a propert

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

Philosopher Norman Malcolm reformulated the Ontological Argument using Anselm's second form, emphasizing necessary exist

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

An argument for God's existence that proceeds a priori from the concept of God alone, without reference to the world. An

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

Alvin Plantinga reformulated the Ontological Argument using modern modal logic, replacing Kant's criticism. In every pos

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

Alvin Plantinga's late 20th-century ontological argument using modal logic to argue that a maximally great being is poss

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

A French peasant girl (1844-1879) who reported eighteen visions of the Virgin Mary at Lourdes, France in 1858. Her exper

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

A contemporary example of radical conversion: Nicky Cruz, raised in Puerto Rican gang culture in New York, experienced C

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

The apostle Paul's transformation from Jewish persecutor of Christians to Christian missionary following a vision of the

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

Religious experiences shared by groups rather than individuals, such as collective worship, synchronized prayer, or comm

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

William James' phenomenological analysis of mystical experience identifying four characteristics: ineffability (experien

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

Scientific findings that brain states, neural activity, and brain stimulation can produce experiences phenomenologically

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

A direct, personal encounter or awareness of the divine, including mystical experiences, visions, religious conversion,

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

Rudolf Otto's term for the unique, irreducibly religious experience of the sacred or holy. The numinous combines mysteri

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

Epistemological principles developed by Richard Swinburne to justify belief in others' religious experiences. The Princi

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

A charismatic revival movement beginning in 1994 at a Toronto Vineyard church characterized by uncontrolled emotional ex

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

American psychologist and philosopher (1842–1910) who pioneered the empirical study of religious experience. His work Th

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

St. Augustine's theodicy attributing evil to the misuse of human free will, not to God's design. God created all things

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

William Rowe's formulation of the problem of evil arguing not that evil is logically incompatible with God's existence b

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

A response to the Problem of Evil arguing that moral evil is the necessary consequence of human free will. God gave huma

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

John Hick's development of Irenaean theodicy, arguing that moral and spiritual development (soul-making) requires an env

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

The logical formulation of the problem of evil presenting three seemingly incompatible propositions: (1) God is omnipote

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

A theodicy attributing evil's necessity to moral and spiritual development. God created humanity not perfect but with po

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

John Hick's theodicy arguing that God intentionally maintains 'epistemic distance' between humanity and the divine—moral

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

J.L. Mackie formulated the logical Problem of Evil as a strict inconsistency: God omnipotent, God omnibenevolent, and ev

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

Philosophers distinguish natural evils (suffering from natural causes: disease, earthquakes, storms) from moral evils (s

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

The philosophical problem that the existence of evil (suffering, pain, moral corruption) is inconsistent with the existe

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

A metaphysical theology denying divine omnipotence in the classical sense. God is all-knowing and all-good but not all-p

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

Process theology, developed by Charles Hartshorne and Alfred North Whitehead, argues that God is not omnipotent in the c

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

Philosophical and theological responses attempting to reconcile the existence of evil with God's omnipotence and omniben

Philosophy of Religion

Christian beliefs and sources of authority

The foundational doctrines of Christianity including belief in God as Trinity, Jesus Christ as the incarnate Son of God,

Study of Christianity

Christian beliefs and sources of authority

Form criticism investigates preliterary oral traditions (sayings, miracle stories, parables) embedded in biblical texts,

Study of Christianity

Christian beliefs and sources of authority

The discipline of biblical interpretation investigating how to understand ancient texts within their cultural-historical

Study of Christianity

Christian beliefs and sources of authority

Biblical texts employ diverse literary forms: historical narrative, law codes, wisdom literature, poetry, apocalyptic, p

Study of Christianity

Christian beliefs and sources of authority

The view that all of Scripture is divinely inspired (plenary = full) without necessarily claiming verbal inspiration. Pl

Study of Christianity

Christian beliefs and sources of authority

Redaction criticism examines how Gospel writers selected, arranged, and modified inherited traditions to communicate dis

Study of Christianity

Christian beliefs and sources of authority

The understanding that the Bible (Old and New Testaments) possesses divine authority for Christian belief and practice.

Study of Christianity

Christian beliefs and sources of authority

The Christian doctrine that God exists eternally as three distinct persons—Father, Son, and Holy Spirit—while remaining

Study of Christianity

Christian beliefs and sources of authority

The belief that God guided biblical authors so completely that the biblical text itself is divinely inspired, not merely

Study of Christianity

Christian beliefs and sources of authority

Theological explanations of how Christ's death redeems humanity from sin and reconciles them to God. Major theories incl

Study of Christianity

Christian beliefs and sources of authority

The doctrine that Jesus Christ is one person (hypostasis) with two distinct natures: divine and human, without confusion

Study of Christianity

Christian beliefs and sources of authority

The doctrine of Christ's self-emptying (kenosis): Jesus's assumption of human nature involved divine self-limitation or

Study of Christianity

Christian beliefs and sources of authority

The central Christian events: Jesus's execution by crucifixion (death) and his bodily resurrection (return to life). The

Study of Christianity

Christian beliefs and sources of authority

Theological distinction between economic Trinity (God's action in history: creation, redemption, sanctification) and imm

Study of Christianity

Christian beliefs and sources of authority

The Christian doctrine that God, the eternal Son, became fully human in Jesus Christ while remaining fully divine. The i

Study of Christianity

Christian beliefs and sources of authority

The Christian doctrine that humanity inherited sinfulness from Adam and Eve's primordial disobedience. Original sin expl

Study of Christianity

Christian beliefs and sources of authority

The Christian understanding of deliverance from sin and reconciliation with God through Christ. Salvation involves justi

Study of Christianity

Christian beliefs and sources of authority

The Nicene Creed (325 CE) formally defined Christian Trinitarian doctrine, affirming the Son's homoousios (same substanc

Study of Christianity

Christian beliefs and sources of authority

Christian theology concerning the end of history and the afterlife: heaven (eternal communion with God), hell (separatio

Study of Christianity

Christian beliefs and sources of authority

Beatific vision is the blessed state of seeing God directly (2 Corinthians 13:12). Annihilationism claims the damned cea

Study of Christianity

Christian beliefs and sources of authority

Parousia is Christ's promised second coming. Final judgment involves God's evaluation of all people at history's end: pa

Study of Christianity

Christian beliefs and sources of authority

Martin Luther's doctrine that salvation comes through faith in Christ alone, not human works. Justification is God's dec

Study of Christianity

Christian beliefs and sources of authority

Sanctification is the process of becoming morally and spiritually transformed after justification. Prevenient grace, irr

Study of Christianity

Christian beliefs and sources of authority

Agape (divine love, self-giving love) functions as the foundational Christian ethical principle. Applied to specific iss

Study of Christianity

Christian beliefs and sources of authority

Justice, a central Christian ethical principle, encompasses social justice (equitable social structures), distributive j

Study of Christianity

Christian beliefs and sources of authority

Christians approach Scripture's moral authority differently: literal interpretation (all biblical commands bind today);

Study of Christianity

Christian beliefs and sources of authority

Christian ethics emphasizes conscience—the internal moral sense guiding ethical decisions. Newman's 'primacy of conscien

Study of Christianity

Christian beliefs and sources of authority

Catholic social teaching's 'preferential option for the poor' asserts that Christian ethics prioritizes the poor and mar

Study of Christianity

Christian beliefs and sources of authority

Christian baptism traditions: infant baptism (paedobaptism) practiced by Catholics and many Protestants; believer's bapt

Study of Christianity

Christian beliefs and sources of authority

Eucharist/Communion theology varies: transubstantiation (substance transforms), consubstantiation (both substances coexi

Study of Christianity

Christian beliefs and sources of authority

Gustavo Gutiérrez developed liberation theology emphasizing God's option for the poor and theology's responsibility to a

Study of Christianity

Christian beliefs and sources of authority

Baptism, the ritual of water immersion or sprinkling initiating Christians, exists in two major forms: believer's baptis

Study of Christianity

Christian beliefs and sources of authority

Christian denominations understand the Eucharist (Holy Communion, the Lord's Supper) differently: transubstantiation (Ca

Study of Christianity

Christian beliefs and sources of authority

Christian prayer encompasses multiple types: adoration (praising God), confession (acknowledging sin), thanksgiving (gra

Study of Christianity

Christian beliefs and sources of authority

Christian mission encompasses evangelism (proclaiming the Gospel and inviting conversion) and broader work toward holist

Study of Christianity

Christian beliefs and sources of authority

The ecumenical movement seeks Christian unity across denominational divisions. Major organizations include the World Cou

Study of Christianity

Christian beliefs and sources of authority

Church-state relations encompass establishment (state sponsorship of official religion), Christendom (Christian civiliza

Study of Christianity

Ethical theories and their application

Two versions of utilitarianism differing in their decision procedure: act utilitarianism evaluates individual actions' c

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832) founded utilitarianism, formulating it as a precise calculus. His Hedonic Calculus attempted

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

Jeremy Bentham's quantitative method for evaluating pleasure and pain, proposing seven criteria: intensity, duration, ce

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

John Stuart Mill (1806–1873) refined Bentham's utilitarianism, introducing qualitative distinctions between pleasures. M

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

John Stuart Mill's argument for utilitarianism presented in Chapter IV of Utilitarianism, attempting to derive the princ

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

Philosopher Peter Singer (1946–) developed preference utilitarianism, defining utility as preference satisfaction rather

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

Peter Singer's version of utilitarianism emphasizing the satisfaction of preferences rather than just pleasure. Moral ri

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

A form of utilitarianism evaluating the morality of acts not by their individual consequences but by whether following t

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

An ethical theory stating that actions are morally right insofar as they maximize overall utility (happiness, pleasure,

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

Joseph Fletcher's practical decision-making framework: (1) pragmatism (consequences, not intentions, determine morality)

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

Joseph Fletcher's foundational principles of situation ethics: (1) Only love is intrinsically good; (2) decisions should

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

Two extremes that situation ethics attempts to transcend: legalism rigidly applies absolute rules regardless of circumst

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

Joseph Fletcher's ethical theory that moral rules are not absolute; the right action depends on the situation. The only

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

Joseph Fletcher articulated situation ethics' six principles: (1) only love is intrinsically good; (2) love is the rulin

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

Fletcher identified four operational principles guiding situation ethics: pragmatism (consequences matter ethically), re

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

Fletcher distinguished three ethical approaches: legalism (rigid adherence to rules, ignoring circumstances), antinomian

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

Bishop John Robinson's Honest to God (1963) popularized situation ethics and radical theology, arguing for a morality gr

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

Major criticisms of situation ethics include: William Barclay's charge of antinomianism; concerns about ethical relativi

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

Aquinas's natural law theory grounds ethics in human nature understood teleologically. Reason apprehends human nature's

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

A principle in Natural Moral Law and Catholic moral theology stating that an action with both good and bad effects may b

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

John Finnis identifies seven basic human goods that structure natural law reasoning: life (health, bodily integrity), kn

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

Natural law ethics distinguishes between interior acts (will, intention, desire) and exterior acts (observable behavior)

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

Natural law theory distinguishes between genuine goods (those truly perfecting human nature) and apparent goods (those s

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

An ethical theory, developed by Aquinas, asserting that morality derives from universal, divinely ordained human nature.

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

In Aquinas's Natural Moral Law, primary precepts are self-evident principles of practical reason discoverable through re

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

Proportionalism, developed by Bernard Hoose and others, refines natural law by arguing that acts are moral if the goods

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

Kant's supreme moral principle—an unconditional command binding all rational agents. Unlike hypothetical imperatives ('i

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

Kant distinguishes hypothetical imperatives (if you desire X, do Y) from categorical imperatives (do Y, period). Hypothe

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

Prussian philosopher whose critical philosophy revolutionized epistemology and ethics. Kant argued that knowledge requir

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

Immanuel Kant's foundational ethical concepts: a good will—the commitment to act from duty and respect for moral law—is

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

Kant's vision of a 'kingdom of ends' where all rational beings are treated as ends in themselves and none as mere means,

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

Kant argues that moral agency rationally requires three postulates: (1) freedom/autonomy; (2) immortality of the soul; (

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

Immanuel Kant's deontological ethical theory asserting that morality derives from duties determined by reason, not conse

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

The ethical principle that moral judgments must be universalizable: if an action is morally required for one person, it'

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

A.J. Ayer's logical positivism applies to ethics: since moral statements cannot be empirically verified, they are neithe

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

The meta-ethical position that moral statements express emotions or attitudes rather than factual claims. 'Murder is wro

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

R.M. Hare developed prescriptivism: moral statements are prescriptions or imperatives rather than factual assertions. 'Y

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

The meta-ethical position that moral properties are non-natural, objective, and knowable through intuition or rational i

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

The philosophical study of morality's nature: What does 'good' mean? Do moral facts exist objectively? Are moral judgmen

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

Philosopher G.E. Moore argued that 'good' is a simple, indefinable, non-natural property. Good cannot be reduced to natu

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

The meta-ethical position that moral properties are natural properties reducible to physical or psychological facts. Goo

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

G.E. Moore's critique of defining moral properties in natural terms. The open question argument: even if 'good' is defin

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

The meta-ethical position that moral statements are imperatives or prescriptions rather than descriptive propositions. '

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

Moral philosopher H.A. Pritchard argued that moral knowledge is obtained through intuition—direct rational insight into

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

W.D. Ross developed a pluralist deontological ethics based on prima facie duties—duties that are binding unless overridd

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

W.D. Ross identifies multiple irreducible moral duties: fidelity, reparation, gratitude, justice, beneficence, non-malef

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

Charles Stevenson developed emotivism, treating moral statements as expressions of attitude plus imperative intent. 'Ste

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

Charles Stevenson's sophisticated emotivism distinguishing descriptive meaning from emotive meaning. Moral words have mi

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

Thomas Aquinas's understanding of conscience grounded in synderesis, the intellect's direct knowledge of fundamental goo

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

Joseph Butler's argument that conscience is the supreme moral authority: conscience judges all actions. When conscience

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

The position that free will and causal determinism are compatible. Free will doesn't require the ability to do otherwise

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

The philosophical problem of reconciling human freedom with causal determinism. If all events (including human actions)

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

Erich Fromm's psychological distinction between authoritarian conscience (internalized social authority, fear-based) and

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

The position that determinism is true (all events are causally determined) and free will is impossible; therefore, human

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

The position that humans possess libertarian free will—the ability to act contrary to prior causes and determined outcom

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

John Henry Newman's theory that conscience involves the illative sense—a faculty for reaching moral conclusions through

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

Corporations have moral obligations beyond legal compliance and profit-maximization to stakeholders and society: environ

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

Ethical challenges from global business: labor exploitation in developing countries, environmental degradation, profit e

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

Corporations have obligations to all stakeholders (employees, suppliers, customers, communities, environment, shareholde

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

Joseph Butler (1692–1752), Bishop of Durham, developed an influential account of conscience. He argued conscience is the

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

The capacity to recognize and follow moral principles; the internal voice guiding moral judgment. Theological and philos

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

Euthanasia involves distinctions crucial to ethical debate: (1) voluntary/non-voluntary/involuntary; (2) active/passive;

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

Sigmund Freud analyzed conscience psychologically as the superego—internalized parental and social authority. Conscience

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

Cardinal John Henry Newman (1801–1890) developed an influential theological account of conscience. Conscience is the voi

Ethics

Ethical theories and their application

Two competing frameworks for euthanasia: sanctity of life (life has intrinsic value; ending life is inherently wrong) ve

Ethics

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

The approach, developed by Aquinas, that religious language uses analogy to speak meaningfully of God. Terms (good, powe

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

A.J. Ayer developed logical positivism, applying verification principle to language. Statements are meaningful only if a

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

John Polkinghorne advocates critical realism: both science and theology offer genuine insight into reality, not mere hum

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

Antony Flew's critique of religious language: if believers cannot specify conditions under which God's existence or good

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

Philosopher Antony Flew challenged religious language through falsification: if believers cannot specify conditions fals

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

Stephen Jay Gould proposes NOMA: science and religion occupy non-overlapping magisteria (domains). Science addresses fac

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

Intelligent Design (ID) claims that some biological features are too complex for natural selection without invoking a de

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

A philosophical movement, particularly associated with A.J. Ayer, asserting that meaningful statements must be either an

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

The philosophical problem of how to speak meaningfully about God and transcendent reality. Major approaches: via negativ

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

Ian Barbour identifies four relationships between science and religion: conflict (they contradict), independence (differ

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

Approaches viewing religious language as symbolic and mythic rather than literally referential. Tillich argued religious

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

Protestant theologian Paul Tillich developed sophisticated accounts of religious language, symbols, and faith. Tillich t

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

The theological approach, developed by Pseudo-Dionysius and Thomas Aquinas, that God can be known through negation: desc

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

Ludwig Wittgenstein's philosophical approach treating religious language as a distinct language game with its own rules,

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

The scientific theory that the universe originated from an extremely hot, dense state ~13.8 billion years ago. The Big B

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

R.B. Braithwaite argues that religious statements are moral assertions with prescriptive force, not descriptive fact-cla

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

Cognitive religious language makes truth-claims about reality (propositional content). Non-cognitive language expresses

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

Evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins argues that evolutionary theory eliminates the need for design arguments and supp

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

John Hick proposes eschatological verification: religious claims will be verified or falsified in the eschaton (end time

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

The debate between evolutionary theory and intelligent design. Evolution explains apparent design through natural select

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

R.M. Hare argues that religious faith is a 'blik': a fundamental commitment that shapes interpretation of experience but

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

Basil Mitchell's parable responds to the falsification challenge: a partisan's faith in his leader persists despite appa

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

Rudolf Bultmann argues that biblical mythological language (miracles, resurrection, ascension) must be demythologized to

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

Physicist and theologian John Polkinghorne argues for integration of science and theology. He contends that quantum inde

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

The philosophical and theological engagement between religious and scientific worldviews. Key issues: creation vs. evolu

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

Aquinas employs analogy to address how language meaningfully refers to God. Analogy of attribution: properties predicate

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

Wittgenstein's approach to religious language: religious discourse constitutes a distinct language game with its own rul

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

Ian Ramsey argues that religious language employs models (psychological patterns making sense of experience) qualified b

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

Logical positivists distinguished strong verification (empirical proof of truth) from weak verification (falsifiability

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

Richard Dawkins argues that God's existence is scientifically implausible and that belief in God causes cultural harm, m

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

The meta-ethical position that moral facts are constituted by divine commands: something is right because God commands i

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

Plato's logical challenge to Divine Command Theory: Are things good because God commands them, or does God command them

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

Religious particularism claims exclusive truth: one tradition (typically one's own) offers unique path to salvation/enli

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

Karl Rahner proposes 'anonymous Christianity': those outside the Church who respond to God's offer of grace are implicit

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

John Hick proposes that various religious traditions (Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, etc.) represent different culturall

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

Karl Rahner proposes that God's universal grace-offer means those outside Christian tradition who respond positively imp

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

The philosophical question whether morality requires religious foundations or whether secular ethics can sustain moral o

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

Grace Davie argues that modern Europe exhibits 'believing without belonging': people maintain religious belief/memory wi

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

John Hick (1922–2012) developed the most systematic theological pluralism. He argued that major religions respond to the

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

Paul Knitter identifies four models of religious pluralism: exclusivism (one truth), inclusivism (one tradition encompas

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

The philosophical position that multiple religious traditions are valid paths to ultimate reality or salvific truth. Plu

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

Steve Bruce argues that religious decline results from reduced demand (people less need religion for meaning) and disrup

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

Secularisation is the decline of religion's social significance: fewer people practice religion, religious institutions

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

Rodney Stark and William Bainbridge developed supply-side religious economy theory, arguing that secularisation reflects

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

Grace Davie's 'vicarious religion' thesis proposes that in Europe, people approve of religion being practiced on their b

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

José Casanova's 'deprivatisation' thesis argues that religion, contrary to secularisation theory, increasingly enters pu

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

Peter Berger's 'sacred canopy' metaphor describes religion as a meaning-making framework legitimizing social reality. Pl

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

'Spiritual but not religious' represents postmodern spirituality: pick-and-mix selections from multiple traditions, New

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

Mary Daly critiques Christianity as inherently patriarchal; the tradition cannot be reformed but must be transcended. Sh

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

Rosemary Radford Ruether and others argue that Christianity can be reformed toward gender justice through recovering sup

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

The sociological hypothesis that modernization inevitably produces secularization (decline of religion's social signific

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

Womanist theology, developed by African American women (Delores Williams, Katie Geneva Cannon), addresses the triple opp

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

Elisabeth Schüssler Fiorenza developed feminist hermeneutics grounded in the 'hermeneutics of suspicion'—critically ques

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

Phyllis Trible applied the 'depatriarchalising principle' to biblical texts, offering feminist reinterpretations of prob

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

Christian theology has developed complementarian views (men and women possess different roles; male headship) and egalit

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

The debate over whether women should be ordained as priests and bishops remains contentious across Christian denominatio

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

Rosemary Radford Ruether critiqued patriarchal God-language ('He,' 'Father,' 'King'), arguing it reinforces gender hiera

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

Building on theorist bell hooks' work, intersectional religious feminism recognizes that gender oppression intersects wi

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

Theological reflection critiquing patriarchal structures in religion and retrieving women's experiences as authoritative

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

Theological movement prioritizing liberation of the poor and oppressed as central to Christian faith. Gustavo Gutierrez

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

Gustavo Gutiérrez, a Peruvian priest and founding figure of liberation theology, developed a theology centered on God's

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

Conscientisation (Paulo Freire's concept) is the process of developing critical consciousness of oppression and one's ca

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

Small, lay-led Christian communities primarily in Latin America that combine biblical study, conscientisation, and socia

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

Leonardo Boff's concept of ecclesiogenesis—the church's continual rebirth from below—emphasizes that authentic church em

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

Marxist social analysis significantly influenced liberation theology's methodology. While liberation theologians used Ma

Dialogues

Philosophy, ethics and religion in dialogue

The Vatican, particularly through Pope John Paul II and Cardinal Ratzinger's Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith,

Dialogues