Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

Medieval Dominican friar and Doctor of the Church who synthesized Aristotelian philosophy with Christian theology. Aquin

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

Aquinas' fifth cosmological argument arguing that natural objects lacking intellect act toward definite ends, which must

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

The argument that the universe's apparent design, order, and complexity points to the existence of an intelligent design

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

The theory that apparent design in living organisms arises through natural selection and mutation rather than intelligen

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

The observation that physical constants and initial conditions are precisely calibrated for life. Gravity, electromagnet

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

Scottish empiricist philosopher who challenged causality's rational necessity, criticized religious arguments, and devel

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

David Hume's philosophical objections to the Design Argument, presented in his Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion. He

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

William Paley's 18th-century argument that if someone found a watch in a field, they would infer an intelligent maker; s

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

Richard Swinburne's approach to theistic arguments treating multiple lines of evidence (design, cosmology, religious exp

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

Richard Swinburne's modern refinement of the Design Argument, proposing that the existence of a universe exhibiting orde

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

Frederick Tennant's modern design argument based on aesthetic appreciation and the universe's apparent fine-tuning for h

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

Metaphysical distinction between contingent beings (whose existence depends on external causes) and necessary beings (wh

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

A famous 1948 BBC radio debate between Catholic philosopher Frederick Copleston and atheist philosopher Bertrand Russell

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

The argument that everything that exists requires a cause; the universe exists; therefore, the universe must have a caus

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

The logical problem that if every cause requires a prior cause, an infinite chain of causes stretches backward without b

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

A modern version of the Cosmological Argument developed by medieval Islamic philosophers and revived by contemporary apo

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

A contemporary cosmological argument developed by Islamic philosophers and refined by William Lane Craig, arguing that:

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

German philosopher who formulated the Principle of Sufficient Reason and developed a version of the Cosmological Argumen

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz's metaphysical principle stating that everything must have a reason or explanation for its exi

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

The philosophical principle, articulated by Leibniz, that everything must have an explanation or reason for its existenc

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

Bertrand Russell's famous objection that the Cosmological Argument commits the logical fallacy of special pleading by ex

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

Medieval theologian and philosopher (1033–1109) who formulated the Ontological Argument for God's existence. Anselm defi

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

Two versions of Anselm's ontological argument: Proslogion 2 argues that that-than-which-nothing-greater-can-be-conceived

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

French philosopher who developed a version of the Ontological Argument using geometric necessity. Descartes argued that

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

René Descartes's reformulation of Anselm's Ontological Argument using the analogy of geometric properties. Descartes arg

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

René Descartes' version of the ontological argument claiming that the idea of God (an infinite, perfect being) could not

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

A reductio ad absurdum objection to the Ontological Argument. Gaunilo, an 11th-century critic of Anselm, argued that by

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

Immanuel Kant's philosophical objection that 'existence is not a predicate.' Kant argued that existence is not a propert

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

Philosopher Norman Malcolm reformulated the Ontological Argument using Anselm's second form, emphasizing necessary exist

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

An argument for God's existence that proceeds a priori from the concept of God alone, without reference to the world. An

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

Alvin Plantinga reformulated the Ontological Argument using modern modal logic, replacing Kant's criticism. In every pos

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

Alvin Plantinga's late 20th-century ontological argument using modal logic to argue that a maximally great being is poss

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

A French peasant girl (1844-1879) who reported eighteen visions of the Virgin Mary at Lourdes, France in 1858. Her exper

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

A contemporary example of radical conversion: Nicky Cruz, raised in Puerto Rican gang culture in New York, experienced C

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

The apostle Paul's transformation from Jewish persecutor of Christians to Christian missionary following a vision of the

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

Religious experiences shared by groups rather than individuals, such as collective worship, synchronized prayer, or comm

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

William James' phenomenological analysis of mystical experience identifying four characteristics: ineffability (experien

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

Scientific findings that brain states, neural activity, and brain stimulation can produce experiences phenomenologically

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

A direct, personal encounter or awareness of the divine, including mystical experiences, visions, religious conversion,

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

Rudolf Otto's term for the unique, irreducibly religious experience of the sacred or holy. The numinous combines mysteri

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

Epistemological principles developed by Richard Swinburne to justify belief in others' religious experiences. The Princi

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

A charismatic revival movement beginning in 1994 at a Toronto Vineyard church characterized by uncontrolled emotional ex

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

American psychologist and philosopher (1842–1910) who pioneered the empirical study of religious experience. His work Th

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

St. Augustine's theodicy attributing evil to the misuse of human free will, not to God's design. God created all things

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

William Rowe's formulation of the problem of evil arguing not that evil is logically incompatible with God's existence b

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

A response to the Problem of Evil arguing that moral evil is the necessary consequence of human free will. God gave huma

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

John Hick's development of Irenaean theodicy, arguing that moral and spiritual development (soul-making) requires an env

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

The logical formulation of the problem of evil presenting three seemingly incompatible propositions: (1) God is omnipote

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

A theodicy attributing evil's necessity to moral and spiritual development. God created humanity not perfect but with po

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

John Hick's theodicy arguing that God intentionally maintains 'epistemic distance' between humanity and the divine—moral

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

J.L. Mackie formulated the logical Problem of Evil as a strict inconsistency: God omnipotent, God omnibenevolent, and ev

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

Philosophers distinguish natural evils (suffering from natural causes: disease, earthquakes, storms) from moral evils (s

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

The philosophical problem that the existence of evil (suffering, pain, moral corruption) is inconsistent with the existe

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

A metaphysical theology denying divine omnipotence in the classical sense. God is all-knowing and all-good but not all-p

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

Process theology, developed by Charles Hartshorne and Alfred North Whitehead, argues that God is not omnipotent in the c

Philosophy of Religion

Arguments for the existence of God and their critiques

Philosophical and theological responses attempting to reconcile the existence of evil with God's omnipotence and omniben

Philosophy of Religion