Bernstein speech codes
Basil Bernstein's theory that working-class and middle-class families use different language codes: restricted code (concrete, context-dependent, emotional) versus elaborated code (abstract, context-independent, formal), affecting educational success.
Real World
A working-class child saying 'it's rubbish' (restricted code) versus a middle-class child explaining 'the experiment failed because the variables were not controlled' (elaborated code) illustrates the language gap Bernstein identified in classroom participation.
Exam Focus
Stress that Bernstein did not say restricted code is inferior — he argued schools privilege elaborated code, disadvantaging working-class pupils.
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