Expected Frequencies
For a contingency table, expected frequency for a cell = (row total × column total) / grand total, calculated under the assumption that the variables are independent.
Real World
A supermarket chain like Tesco could calculate expected frequencies when testing whether customer payment method (cash, card, contactless) is independent of store location — expected counts are based on overall proportions across all stores.
Exam Focus
Show the formula E = (row total × column total) / grand total explicitly in working; do not just write the final value.
How well did you know this?