Expected Frequency
In a contingency table, the expected frequency for a cell is calculated as E = (row total × column total) / grand total. This represents the theoretical frequency under the null hypothesis of independence between the two categorical variables.
Real World
A researcher studying whether university subject choice is independent of gender would calculate expected frequencies using (row total × column total) / grand total for each cell, representing the distribution if no association existed between the two variables.
Exam Focus
If any expected frequency falls below 5, state explicitly that categories must be combined before the test is valid.
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